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Propionibacterium
	Emmental cheese made using Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii
Scientific classification
Domain:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Actinomycetota
Class:	Actinomycetia
Order:	Propionibacteriales
Family:	Propionibacteriaceae
Genus:	Propionibacterium; Orla-Jensen 1909 (Approved Lists 1980)
Type species
	Propionibacterium freudenreichii; van Niel 1928 (Approved Lists 1980)
Species
	P. acidifaciens; P. australiense; P. cyclohexanicum; P. freudenreichii; P. ruminifibrarum; "P. westphaliense" Schlattmann et al. 2018;

Propionibacterium is a gram-positive, anaerobic, rod-shaped genus of bacteria named for their unique metabolism: They are able to synthesize propionic acid by using unusual transcarboxylase enzymes.^[3]

Its members are primarily facultative parasites and commensals of humans and other animals, living in and around the sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and other areas of the skin. They are virtually ubiquitous and do not cause problems for most people, but propionibacteria have been implicated in acne and other skin conditions.^[4] One study found the Propionibacterium was the most prevalent human skin-associated genus of microorganisms.^[5]

In ruminants, propionibacteria reduce nitrate to nontoxic nitrogen compounds.^[6]

Members of the genus Propionibacterium are widely used in the production of vitamin B₁₂, tetrapyrrole compounds, and propionic acid, as well as in the probiotics and cheese industries.^[7]

The strain Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii is used in cheesemaking to create CO₂ bubbles that become "eyes"—round holes in the cheese.^[8]

Pathology

Propionibacterium spp. are commensal bacteria that can occasionally cause infectious diseases. The most studied of these infections is acne vulgaris, caused by Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes).^[9] It is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by the blockage of pilosebaceous units causing inflammatory lesions, non-inflammatory lesions or a mixture of both on the face, neck and/or chest.^[10]^[11] Acne vulgaris cannot be defined as an infectious disease since the bacteria is found on a vast majority of individuals without causing lesions.^[10] C. acnes colonize the skin only under certain favorable conditions. In most cases, C. acnes get trapped under the comedones where they proliferate to form micro-comedones, not visible to the naked eye,^[12] which can later form structures such as closed comedones (white heads) and open comedones.^[10] These comedones can rupture, releasing the follicular material inside the dermis. The cause of this rupture was thought to be the indirect effect of fat metabolism by the bacteria, however it was later found that bacteria are directly involved in comedome rupturing by producing factors such as proteases, hyaluronidases and neuraminidases which might be involved in thinning of the epithelium.^[13] C. acnes can also produce immune factors such as proinflammatory cytokine inducing-factors^[14] and chemotactic factors,^[15] and can induce host complement pathways.^[16]

Phylogeny

The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)^[2] and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)^[17]

16S rRNA based LTP_08_2023^[18]^[19]^[20]

120 marker proteins based GTDB 08-RS214^[21]^[22]^[23]

Propionibacterium

P. freudenreichii van Niel 1928 (Approved Lists 1980)

P. cyclohexanicum Kusano et al. 1997

P. acidifaciens Downes and Wade 2009

	P. australiense Bernard et al. 2002

	P. ruminifibrarum Vaidya et al. 2019

Propionibacterium

	P. cyclohexanicum

	P. freudenreichii

P. acidifaciens

	P. australiense

	P. ruminifibrarum

References

^ Orla-Jensen S. (1909). "Die Hauptlinien des natürlichen Bakteriensystems" [The main lineages of natural bacterial systems]. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene, Abteilung II [Central Journal for Bacteriology, Parasite Science, Infectious Diseases and Hygiene, Section II]. 22: 305–346.
^ ^a ^b A.C. Parte; et al. "Propionibacterium". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). Retrieved 2023-09-09.
^ Cheung, Y.F., Fung, C., and Walsh, C. "Stereochemistry of propionyl-coenzyme A and pyruvate carboxylations catalyzed by transcarboxylase." 1975. Biochemistry 14(13), pg 2981.
^ Bojar, R., and Holland, K. "Acne and propionibacterium acnes." 2004. Clinics in Dermatology 22(5), pg. 375-379.
^ Rust, Susanne (4 February 2012). "UC Berkeley Bacteria Study: Research Shows Humans A Major Source Of Germs". Huffington Post. San Francisco. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
^ Strickland,Gary; Richards, Chris; Zhang,Hailin; and Step, D.L (February 2017). "Nitrate Toxicity in Livestock". Oklahoma State University Extension Service. Retrieved 12 July 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Kiatpapan P., Murooka Y. Genetic manipulation system in propionibacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 93 (1) (pp 1–8), 2002
^ Making Swiss Cheese - David B. Fankhauser, Ph.D.
^ Zeller, Valérie A.; Letembet, Valérie-Anne; Meyssonnier, Vanina A.; Heym, Beate; Ziza, Jean-Marc; Marmor, Simon D. (2018-02-12). "Cutibacterium (Formerly Propionibacterium) avidum: A Rare but Avid Agent of Prosthetic Hip Infection". The Journal of Arthroplasty. 33 (7): 2246–2250. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2018.02.008. ISSN 1532-8406. PMID 29544969. S2CID 3916758.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bhatia, Ajay; Maisonneuve, Jean-Francoise; Persing, David H. (2004). PROPIONIBACTERIUM ACNES AND CHRONIC DISEASES. National Academies Press (US).
^ "Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology". 2017-12-15. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ACNE and ROSACEA | G. Plewig | Springer.
^ Noble, W. C. (February 1984). "Skin microbiology: coming of age". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 17 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1099/00222615-17-1-1. ISSN 0022-2615. PMID 6229637.
^ Vowels, B R; Yang, S; Leyden, J J (August 1995). "Induction of proinflammatory cytokines by a soluble factor of Propionibacterium acnes: implications for chronic inflammatory acne". Infection and Immunity. 63 (8): 3158–3165. doi:10.1128/IAI.63.8.3158-3165.1995. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 173431. PMID 7542639.
^ Majeski, J. A.; Stinnett, J. D. (March 1977). "Chemoattractant properties of Corynebacterium parvum and pyran copolymer for human monocytes and neutrophils". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 58 (3): 781–783. doi:10.1093/jnci/58.3.781. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 839571.
^ Webster, G F; Leyden, J J; Norman, M E; Nilsson, U R (November 1978). "Complement activation in acne vulgaris: in vitro studies with Propionibacterium acnes and Propionibacterium granulosum". Infection and Immunity. 22 (2): 523–529. doi:10.1128/IAI.22.2.523-529.1978. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 422187. PMID 153333.
^ Sayers; et al. "Propionibacterium". National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) taxonomy database. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
^ "The LTP". Retrieved 20 November 2023.
^ "LTP_all tree in newick format". Retrieved 20 November 2023.
^ "LTP_08_2023 Release Notes" (PDF). Retrieved 20 November 2023.
^ "GTDB release 08-RS214". Genome Taxonomy Database. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
^ "bac120_r214.sp_label". Genome Taxonomy Database. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
^ "Taxon History". Genome Taxonomy Database. Retrieved 10 May 2023.