The orange colour of many fruits and vegetables, such as carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, and oranges, comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the Sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. Similarly, the hues of autumn leaves are from the same pigment after chlorophyll is removed.
In Europe and the United States, surveys show that orange is the colour most associated with amusement, the unconventional, extroversion, warmth, fire, energy, activity, danger, taste and aroma, the autumn and Allhallowtide seasons, as well as having long been the national colour of the Netherlands and the House of Orange. It also serves as the political colour of the Christian democracy political ideology and most Christian democratic political parties.[4] In Asia, it is an important symbolic colour in Buddhism and Hinduism.[5]
In nature and culture
The colour orange derives its name from the orange fruit.
In English, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit.[6] The word comes from the Old French: orange, from the old term for the fruit, pomme d'orange. The French word, in turn, comes from the Italian arancia,[7][8] based on Arabic نارنج (nāranj), borrowed from Persianنارنگ (nārang), derived from Sanskritनारङ्ग (nāraṅga), which in turn derives from a Dravidian root word (compare நரந்தம்/നാരങ്ങnārandam/nārañja which refers to bitter orange in Tamil and Malayalam).[9] The earliest known recorded use of orange as a colour name in English was in 1502, in a description of clothing purchased for Margaret Tudor.[10][11] Another early recorded use was in 1512,[12][13] in a will now filed with the Public Record Office. By the 17th century, the fruit and its colour were familiar enough that 'orange-coloured' shifted in use to 'orange' as an adjective.[14] The place name "Orange" has a separate etymology and is not related to that of the colour.[15]
Before this word was introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language.[16]Crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad (yellow-red) for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog (yellow-saffron) for yellowish orange.[17][18][19] Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red (which then had a broader meaning)[14] such as red deer, red hair, the Red Planet and robin redbreast. When orange was infrequently used in heraldry, it was referred to as tawny or brusk.[14]
History and art
In ancient Egypt, and ancient India, artists used an orange colour on some of their items. In Egypt, a mineral pigment called realgar was used for tomb paintings, as well as for other purposes. Orange carnelians were significantly used during the Indus Valley Civilisation which was, in turn, obtained by the people of Kutch, Gujarat, India.[20] The colour was also used later by medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts. Pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in ancient China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic. It was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its yellow-orange colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists who were searching for a way to make gold, both in China and in the West.
Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, but without the name; it was simply called yellow-red. Portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit word nāraṅga, which gradually became part of several European languages: naranja in Spanish, laranja in Portuguese, and orange in English & French. In mid-16th century England, the colour referred to as 'orange' was a reddish-brown, matching the deteriorated appearance of the fruit after a long journey from where it was grown in Portugal or |Spain Improvements in transportation and the introduction of an orange grove in Surrey allowed the fresh fruit to become more familiar in England, and the colour referred to as orange shifted in the 1600s toward its modern understanding.[14]
People in ancient Egyptian wall paintings often were shown with orange or yellow-orange skin, painted with a pigment called realgar.
The mineral orpiment was a source of yellow and orange pigments in ancient Rome, though it contained arsenic and was highly toxic.
The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential royal houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 in the tiny Principality of Orange, a feudal state of 108 square miles (280 km2) north of Avignon in southern France. The Principality of Orange took its name not from the fruit, but from a Roman-Celtic settlement on the site which was founded in 36 or 35 BC and was named after the Celtic water god Arausio;[21] however, the name may have been slightly altered, and the town associated with the colour, because it was on the route by which quantities of oranges were brought from southern ports such as Marseille to northern France.
The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name and the colour orange in the 1570s.[22] The colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion. One member of the house, William I of Orange, organised the Eighty Years' War comprising resistance against Spain, a war that lasted eighty years, until the Netherlands won its independence. The House's arguably most prominent member, William III of Orange, became King of England in 1689, after the downfall of the Catholic James II in the Glorious Revolution.
Due to William III, orange became an important political colour in Britain and Europe. William was a Protestant, and as such, he defended the Protestant minority of Ireland against the majority Roman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known as Orangemen. Orange eventually became one of the colours of the Irish flag, symbolising the Protestant heritage. His orange-white-and-blue rebel flag became the forerunner of The Netherlands' modern flag.[22]
The flag of South Africa (1928–1994) had an orange stripe, due to the influence of House of Orange and the period when there was a Dutch colony.
The modern flag of New York City takes its colours from the Dutch flag of the 17th century, and has an orange stripe in honour of the House of Orange-Nassau.
In the 18th century, orange was sometimes used to depict the robes of Pomona, the goddess of fruitful abundance; her name came from the pomon, the Latin word for fruit. Oranges themselves became more common in northern Europe, thanks to the 17th-century invention of the heated greenhouse, a building type which became known as an orangerie. The French artist Jean-Honoré Fragonard depicted an allegorical figure of inspiration dressed in orange.
In 1797 a French scientist Louis Vauquelin discovered the mineral crocoite, or lead chromate, which led in 1809 to the invention of the synthetic pigment chrome orange. Other synthetic pigments, cobalt red, cobalt yellow, and cobalt orange, the last made from cadmium sulfide plus cadmium selenide, soon followed. These new pigments, plus the invention of the metal paint tube in 1841, made it possible for artists to paint outdoors and to capture the colours of natural light.
In Britain, orange became highly popular with the Pre-Raphaelites and with history painters. The flowing red-orange hair of Elizabeth Siddal, a prolific model and the wife of painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, became a symbol of the Pre-Raphaelite movement. Lord Leighton, the president of the Royal Academy, produced Flaming June, a painting of a sleeping young woman in a bright orange dress, which won wide acclaim. Albert Joseph Moore painted festive scenes of Romans wearing orange cloaks brighter than any of the Romans ever likely wore. In the United States, Winslow Homer brightened his palette with vivid oranges.
In France, painters took orange in an entirely different direction. In 1872 Claude Monet painted Impression, Sunrise, a tiny orange sun and some orange light reflected on the clouds and water in the centre of a hazy blue landscape. This painting gave its name to the Impressionist movement.
Orange became an important colour for all the Impressionist painters. They all had studied the recent books on colour theory, and they know that orange placed next to azure blue made both colours much brighter. Auguste Renoir painted boats with stripes of chrome orange paint straight from the tube. Paul Cézanne did not use orange pigment, but produced his own oranges with touches of yellow, red and ochre against a blue background. Toulouse-Lautrec often used oranges in the skirts of dancers and gowns of Parisiennes in the cafes and clubs he portrayed. For him, it was the colour of festivity and amusement.
The Post-Impressionists went even further with orange. Paul Gauguin used oranges as backgrounds, for clothing and skin colour, to fill his pictures with light and exoticism. But no other painter used orange so often and dramatically as Vincent van Gogh. who had shared a house with Gauguin in Arles for a time. For Van Gogh orange and yellow were the pure sunlight of Provence. He produced his own oranges with mixtures of yellow, ochre and red, and placed them next to slashes of sienna red and bottle green, and below a sky of turbulent blue and violet. He put an orange moon and stars in a cobalt blue sky. He wrote to his brother Theo of searching for oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet, searching for broken colours and neutral colours to harmonize the brutality of extremes, trying to make the colours intense, and not a harmony of greys.[23]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, the colour orange had highly varied associations, both positive and negative.
The high visibility of orange made it a popular colour for certain kinds of clothing and equipment. During World War II, US Navy pilots in the Pacific began to wear orange inflatable life jackets, which could be spotted by search and rescue planes. After the war, these jackets became common on both civilian and naval vessels of all sizes, and on aircraft flown over water. Orange is also widely worn (to avoid being hit) by workers on highways and by cyclists.
A herbicide called Agent Orange was widely sprayed from aircraft by the Royal Air Force during the Malayan Emergency and the US Air Force during the Vietnam War to remove the forest and jungle cover beneath which enemy combatants were believed to be hiding, and to expose their supply routes. The chemical was not actually orange, but took its name from the colour of the steel drums in which it was stored. Agent Orange was toxic, and was later linked to birth defects and other health problems.
A US Navy pilot during World War II wearing an orange inflatable life jacket.
Orange also had and continues to have a political dimension. Orange serves as the colour of Christian democratic political ideology, which is based on Catholic social teaching and Neo-Calvinist theology; Christian democratic political parties came to prominence in Europe and the Americas after World War II.[24][4]
In Ukraine in November–December 2004, it became the colour of the Orange Revolution, a popular movement which carried activist and reformer Viktor Yushchenko into the presidency.[25] In parts of the world, especially Northern Ireland, the colour is associated with the Orange Order, a Protestant fraternal organisation and relatedly, Orangemen, marches and other social and political activities, with the colour orange being associated with Protestantism similar to the Netherlands.
Flag of the Orange Order, an international Protestant fraternal organisation
In traditional colour theory, orange is a range of colours between red and yellow
In optics, orange is the colour seen by the eye when looking at light with a wavelength between approximately 585–620nm. It has a hue of 30° in HSV colour space. Isaac Newton's Opticks distinguished between pure orange light and mixtures of red and yellow light by noting that mixtures could be separated using a prism.[26]
In the traditional colour wheel used by painters, orange is the range of colours between red and yellow, and painters can obtain orange simply by mixing red and yellow in various proportions; however these colours are never as vivid as a pure orange pigment. In the RGB colour model (the system used to display colours on a television or computer screen), orange is generated by combining high intensity red light with a lower intensity green light, with the blue light turned off entirely. Orange is a tertiary colour which is numerically halfway between gamma-compressed red and yellow, as can be seen in the RGB colour wheel.
Regarding painting, blue is the complementary colour to orange. As many painters of the 19th century discovered, blue and orange reinforce each other. The painter Vincent van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo that in his paintings, he was trying to reveal "the oppositions of blue with orange, of red with green, of yellow with violet... trying to make the colours intense and not a harmony of grey".[27] In another letter he wrote simply, "There is no orange without blue."[28] Van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and many other Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters frequently placed orange against azure or cobalt blue, to make both colours appear brighter.
The actual complement of orange is azure – a colour that is one quarter of the way between blue and green on the colour spectrum. The actual complementary colour of true blue is yellow. Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, and absorb mostly greenish-blue light.
Pigments and dyes
A sample of orpiment from an arsenic mine in southern Russia. Orpiment has been used to make orange pigment since ancient times in ancient Egypt, Europe and China. Romans used the mineral for trade.
Realgar, an arsenic sulfide mineral 1.5-2.5 Mohs hardness, is highly toxic. It was used since ancient times until the 19th century to make red-orange pigment, as a poison, and a medicine.
Minium and massicot are bright yellow and orange pigments made since ancient times by heating lead oxide and its variants. Minium was used in the Byzantine Empire for making the red-orange colour on illuminated manuscripts, while massicot was used by ancient Egyptian scribes and in the Middle Ages. Both substances are toxic, and were replaced in the beginning of the 20th century by chrome orange and cadmium orange.[29]
Cadmium orange is a synthetic pigment made from cadmium sulphide. It is a by-product of mining for zinc, but also occurs rarely in nature in the mineral greenockite. It is usually made by replacing some of the sulphur with selenium, which results in an expensive but deep and lasting colour. Selenium was discovered in 1817, but the pigment was not made commercially until 1910.[30]
Quinacridone orange is a synthetic organic pigment first identified in 1896 and manufactured in 1935. It makes a vivid and solid orange.
Diketopyrrolopyrrole orange or DPP orange is a synthetic organic pigment first commercialised in 1986. It is sold under various commercial names, such as translucent orange. It makes an extremely bright and lasting orange, and is widely used to colour plastics and fibres, as well as in paints.[31]
Orange natural objects
The orange colour of carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, oranges, and many other fruits and vegetables comes from carotenes, a type of photosynthetic pigment. These pigments convert the light energy that the plants absorb from the sun into chemical energy for the plants' growth. The carotenes themselves take their name from the carrot.[32]Autumn leaves also get their orange colour from carotenes. When the weather turns cold and production of green chlorophyll stops, the orange colour remains.
Before the 18th century, carrots from Asia were usually purple, while those in Europe were either white or red. Dutch farmers bred a variety that was orange; according to some sources, as a tribute to the stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, William of Orange.[33] The long orange Dutch carrot, first described in 1721, is the ancestor of the orange horn carrot, one of the most common types found in supermarkets today. It takes its name from the town of Hoorn, in the Netherlands.
Carrots, pumpkins and other vegetables get their orange colour from carotenes, a variety of photosynthetic pigment, which takes its own name from the carrot.
Orange is traditionally associated with the autumn season, with the harvest and autumn leaves. The flowers, like orange fruits and vegetables and autumn leaves, get their colour from the photosynthetic pigments called carotenes.
A koi, a domesticated carp bred in Japan for its ornamental value in gardens and ponds
An Arion rufus, or European red slug, lives in northern Europe, especially Denmark, and can be eighteen centimetres long.
Foods
Orange is a very common colour of fruits, vegetables, spices, and other foods in many different cultures. As a result, orange is the colour most often associated in western culture with taste and aroma.[34] Orange foods include peaches, apricots, mangoes, carrots, shrimp, salmon roe, and many other foods. Orange colour is provided by spices such as paprika, saffron and curry powder. In the United States, with Halloween on 31 October, and in North America with Thanksgiving in October (Canada) and November (US) orange is associated with the harvest colour, and also is the colour of the carved pumpkins, or jack-o-lanterns, used to celebrate the holiday.
Nacho cheese Doritos, like many popular snack foods, contain Yellow 6, Yellow 5 and Red 40 synthetic food colour.Wrapped slices of American cheese are now often coloured with annatto, a natural food colour made from the seeds of the achiote tree.
People associate certain colours with certain flavours, and the colour of food can influence the perceived flavour in anything from candy to wine.[35] Since orange is popularly associated with good flavour, many companies add orange food colouring to improve the appearance of their packaged foods. Orange pigments and dyes, synthetic or natural, are added to many orange sodas and juices, cheeses (particularly cheddar cheese, Gloucester cheese, and American cheese); snack foods, butter and margarine; breakfast cereals, ice cream, yoghurt, jam and candy. It is also often added to children's medicine, and to chicken feed to make the egg yolks more orange.
The United States Government and the European Union certify a small number of synthetic chemical colourings to be used in food. These are usually aromatic hydrocarbons, or azo dyes, made from petroleum. The most common ones are:
Tartrazine, also known as Yellow 5 and E102. A dye used in soft drinks such as Mountain Dew, Kool-Aid, chewing gum, popcorn, breakfast cereals, cosmetics, shampoos, eyeshadow, blush, and lipstick.
Citrus Red 2 is certified only to colour orange peels.
Because many consumers are worried about possible health consequences of synthetic dyes, some companies are beginning to use natural food colours. Since these food colours are natural, they do not require any certification from the Food and Drug Administration. The most popular natural food colours are:
Annatto, made from the seeds of the achiote tree. Annatto contains carotenoids, the same ingredient that gives carrots and other vegetables their orange colour. Annatto has been used to dye certain cheeses in Britain, particularly Gloucester cheese, since the 16th century. It is now commonly used to colour American cheese, snack foods, breakfast cereal, butter, and margarine. It is used as a body paint by native populations in Central and South America. In India, women often put it, under the name sindūra, on their hairline to indicate that they are married.
Turmeric is a common spice in the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the Mideast. It contains the pigments called curcuminoids, widely used as a dye for the robes of Buddhist monks. It is also often used in curry powders and to give flavour to mustard. It is now being used more frequently in Europe and the US to give an orange colour to canned beverages, ice cream, yogurt, popcorn and breakfast cereal. The food colour is usually listed as E100.
Paprika oleoresin contains natural carotenoids, and is made from chili peppers. It is used to colour cheese, orange juice, spice mixtures and packaged sauces. It is also fed to chickens to make their egg yolks more orange.
In Confucianism, the religion and philosophy of ancient China, orange was the colour of transformation. In China and India, the colour took its name not from the orange fruit, but from saffron, the finest and most expensive dye in Asia. According to Confucianism, existence was governed by the interaction of the male active principle, the yang, and the female passive principle, the yin. Yellow was the colour of perfection and nobility; red was the colour of happiness and power. Yellow and red were compared to light and fire, spirituality and sensuality, seemingly opposite but really complementary. Out of the interaction between the two came orange, the colour of transformation.[36]
Hinduism and Buddhism
A wide variety of colours, ranging from a slightly orange yellow to a deep orange red, all simply called saffron, are closely associated with Hinduism and Buddhism, and are commonly worn by monks and holy men across Asia.
In Hinduism, the divinity Krishna is commonly portrayed dressed in yellow or yellow orange. Yellow and saffron are also the colours worn by sadhu, or wandering pious men in India.
In Buddhism, orange (or more precisely saffron) was the colour of illumination, the highest state of perfection.[37] The saffron colours of robes to be worn by monks were defined by the Buddhist texts. The robe and its colour is a sign of renunciation of the outside world and commitment to the order. The candidate monk, with his master, first appears before the monks of the monastery in his own clothes, with his new robe under his arm and asks to enter the order. He then takes his vows, puts on the robes, and with his begging bowl, goes out to the world. Thereafter, he spends his mornings begging and his afternoons in contemplation and study, either in a forest, garden, or in the monastery.[38]
According to Buddhist scriptures and commentaries, the robe dye is allowed to be obtained from six kinds of substances: roots and tubers, plants, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits. The robes should also be boiled in water for a long time to get the correctly sober colour. Saffron and ochre, usually made with dye from the curcuma longa plant or the heartwood of the jackfruit tree, are the most common colours. The so-called forest monks usually wear ochre robes and city monks saffron, though this is not an official rule.[39]
The colour of robes also varies somewhat among the different vehicles (schools) of Buddhism, and by country, depending on their doctrines and the dyes available. The monks of the strict Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism, practised in Tibet, wear the most colourful robes of saffron and red. The monks of Mahayana Buddhism, practised mainly in Japan, China and Korea, wear lighter yellow or saffron, often with white or black. Monks of Theravada Buddhism, practised in Southeast Asia, usually wear ochre or saffron colour. Monks of the forest tradition in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia wear robes of a brownish ochre, dyed from the wood of the jackfruit tree.[38][40]
Young Thai Buddhist monks
A Hindu sadhu, or ascetic wandering monk or pious man, in Kathmandu, Nepal
In Europe and America orange and yellow are the colours most associated with amusement, frivolity and entertainment. In this regard, orange is the exact opposite of its complementary colour, blue, the colour of calm and reflection. Mythological paintings traditionally showed Bacchus (known in Greek mythology as Dionysus), the god of wine, ritual madness and ecstasy, dressed in orange. Clowns have long worn orange wigs. Toulouse-Lautrec used a palette of yellow, black and orange in his posters of Paris cafes and theatres, and Henri Matisse used an orange, yellow and red palette in his painting, the Joy of Living.[41]
Orange is the colour most easily seen in dim light or against the water, making it, particularly the shade known as safety orange, the colour of choice for life rafts, life jackets or buoys. Highway temporary signs about construction or detours in the United States are orange, because of its visibility and its association with danger.
It is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches of Los Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of "black box", or flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder, are actually bright orange, so they can be found more easily. In some cars, connectors related to safety systems, such as the airbag, may be coloured orange.
Orange is sometimes used, like red and yellow, as a colour warning of possible danger or calling for caution. A skull against an orange background means a toxic substance or poison.
Flag of India (1947). The top-most colour in the flag is called bhagwa or officially, saffron. (However, to some people, it is indistinguishable from orange.) It was originally chosen by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, and originally stood for the Hindu community in India, then for the sacrifice of the people.[46]
Flag of Côte d'Ivoire (1959). The orange stands for the savannah, the fertile land in the north of the country, opposed to the green of the forests in the south.
Flag of Niger (1960). The orange is said to represent the Sahara desert in the north, and the orange disk symbolises either the sun or independence.
Flag of Zambia (1964/1996). The orange is said to represent the land's natural resources and mineral wealth.
Flag of Bhutan (1969). The orange background represents the Buddhist spiritual tradition.
Flag of Armenia (1990). According to the Armenian Constitution, the orange (also called apricot colour) represents the creativity and hard-working nature of the Armenian people. Countries with orange on their flags. The colour on the map corresponds to the tint of orange in the flag.
Geography
Orange is the national colour of the Netherlands. The royal family, the House of Orange-Nassau, derives its name in part from its former holding, the principality of Orange. (The title Prince of Orange is still used for the Dutch heir apparent.)
The Republic of the Orange Free State (Dutch: Oranje-Vrijstaat) was an independent Boer republic in southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century, and later a British colony and a province of the Union of South Africa. It is the historical precursor to the present-day Free State province. Extending between the Orange and Vaal river, its borders were determined by the United Kingdom in 1848 when the region was proclaimed as the Orange River Sovereignty, with a seat of a British Resident in Bloemfontein.
Oranjemund (German for 'Mouth of Oranje') is a town situated in the extreme southwest of Namibia, on the northern bank of the Orange River mouth.
Contemporary political and social movements
Because of its symbolic meaning as the orange colour of activity, orange is often used as the colour of political and social movements.
The NDP's unexpected sweep of seats in Quebec and its consequent rise to official opposition in the 2011 federal election became known as the "Orange Wave" (la vague orange) or "Orange Crush".
In Paganism, orange represents energy, attraction, vitality, and stimulation. It can help with adapting, encouragement, and power.[49]
Buddhist monks in the Theravada tradition typically wear saffron robes. Although occasionally maroon, the colour normally worn by Vajrayana Buddhist monks is orange.
Metaphysics and occultism
The "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "fifth ray" of "Concrete Science" is represented by the colour orange. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Orange Ray".[50]
In alchemy, orpiment – a contraction of the Latin word for gold (aurum) and colour (pigmentum) – was believed to be a key ingredient in the creation of the Philosopher's Stone.[22]
Military
In the United States Army, orange has traditionally been associated with the dragoons, the mounted infantry units which eventually became the US Cavalry. The 1st Cavalry Regiment was founded in 1833 as the United States Dragoons. The modern coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry features the colour orange and orange-yellow shade called dragoon yellow, the colours of the early US dragoon regiments.[52]
The US Signal Corps, founded at the beginning of the American Civil War, adopted orange and white as its official colours in 1872. Orange was adopted because it was the colour of a signal fire, historically used at night while smoke was used during the day, to communicate with distant army units.
The coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry regiment, founded as a dragoon regiment, features a gold dragon and an orange shield, the traditional colours of the dragoons.
The shoulder sleeve insignia of the 1st Signal Command of the US Signal Corps. Orange, the colour of traditional signal fires, and white are the official colours of the Signal Corps.
Prior to and during the Napoleonic Wars a pale shade of orange known as aurore ("dawn") was adopted as the facing colour of several cavalry regiments in the French army. The colour resembled that of the early rising sun.
In the Royal Netherlands Air Force, aircraft may have a roundel with an orange dot in the middle, surrounded by three circular sectors in red, white, and blue.
^ abcReuchamps, Min (17 December 2014). Minority Nations in Multinational Federations: A Comparative Study of Quebec and Wallonia. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN9781317634720.
^Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, pp. 149–158
^Correspondance of Vincent van Gogh, No. 459A, cited in John Gage, Couleur et Culture: Usages et significations de la couleur de l'Antiquité à l'abstraction.
^Eva Heller, Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques, p. 152.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 46–47.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, p. 121.
^Isabelle Roelofs and Fabien Petillion, La couleur expliquée aux artistes, pp. 66–67
^"carotenoid". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
Russo, Ethan; Dreher, Melanie C.; Mathre, Mary Lynn. (2003). Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology (1st ed.). Psychology Press (published March 2003). ISBN978-0-7890-2101-4.
Van Gogh, Vincent (2005). Lettres à Théo. Folioplus classiques. ISBN978-2-07-030687-9.
Van Gogh, Vincent (2010). Lettres de Provence 1888–1890. Auberon. ISBN9782844981097.
Varichon, Anne (2000). Couleurs: pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples. Paris: Editions du Seuil. ISBN978-2-02-084697-4.
English director and film editor This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This biography of a living person relies on a single source. You can help by adding reliable sources to this article. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)Some of this articl...
Men's beach volleyballat the Games of the XXXI OlympiadVenueCopacabana StadiumDates6–18 August 2016Competitors48 from 17 nationsTeams24Medalists Alison CeruttiBruno Oscar Schmidt Brazil Daniele LupoPaolo Nicolai Italy Alexander BrouwerRobert Meeuwsen Netherlands← 20122020 → Volleyball at the2016 Summer OlympicsIndoorQualificationmenwomenTournamentmenwomenRostersmenwomenBeachQualificationmenwomenTournamentmenwomenvte The men's beach volleybal...
National road in South Africa This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: N12 South Africa – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) National route N12The N12 at Perseboom Drift in Meiringspoort as it passes through the SwartbergRou...
Roberto de Francia o Roberto de Clermont Roberto de Francia.Información personalNombre en francés Robert du Clermont Nacimiento c. 1256 Fallecimiento 7 de febrero de 1317jul. Sepultura Convento de los Dominicos de la calle Saint-Honoré Nacionalidad FrancesaFamiliaFamilia Dinastía de los Capetos y Casa de Borbón Padres Luis IX de Francia Margarita de Provenza Cónyuge Beatriz de Borgoña, señora de Borbón (desde 1272, desde 1272, hasta 1310juliano) Hijos Luis I de BorbónJuan ...
Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (December 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Zoo in Basel, Switzerland Zoo BaselZoo Basel logo47°32′50″N 7°34′44″E / 47.547336°N 7.578764°E / 47.547336; 7.578764Date openedJuly 3, 1874LocationBasel, SwitzerlandLand area32.12 acres (13.00 ha)No. of ani...
South African content creator LasizweLasizwe on MacG PodcastBornThulasizwe Siphiwe Dambuza[1] (1998-07-19) 19 July 1998 (age 25)Soweto, Johannesburg, GautengNationalitySouth AfricanOther namesLasizweBabes Wamaleyvels[2]Sweerie[3]NomatriquencyEducationMondeor High School Meredale Primary SchoolOccupations Actor media personality television personality YouTuber Social Media Sensation Years active2015–presentRelatives Khanyi Mbau (half-sister)[4] ...
2015 film directed by Colin Trevorrow This article is about the 2015 film. For the franchise, see Jurassic Park. For other uses, see Jurassic World (disambiguation). Jurassic WorldTheatrical release posterDirected byColin TrevorrowScreenplay by Rick JaffaAmanda Silver Derek Connolly Colin Trevorrow Story by Rick Jaffa Amanda Silver Produced by Frank Marshall Patrick Crowley Starring Chris Pratt Bryce Dallas Howard Vincent D'Onofrio Ty Simpkins Nick Robinson Omar Sy BD Wong Irrfan Khan Cinemat...
Philippine Bowling CongressIOC nationPhilippinesNational flagSportTen-pin bowlingHistoryYear of formation1975Year of disbandment2016Superseded byPhilippine Bowling Federation The Philippine Bowling Congress Inc. or more popularly known as Philippine Bowling Congress and PBC was the governing body for tenpin bowling in the Philippines from 1977 to 2016. The Philippine Bowling Federation Inc. PBF replaced it as the appointed member of the International Bowling Federation (IBF), Asian Bowling Fe...
County in Georgia, United States County in GeorgiaTerrell CountyCountyTerrell County Courthouse in DawsonLocation within the U.S. state of GeorgiaGeorgia's location within the U.S.Coordinates: 31°47′N 84°26′W / 31.78°N 84.44°W / 31.78; -84.44Country United StatesState GeorgiaFoundedFebruary 16, 1856; 167 years ago (1856)Named forWilliam TerrellSeatDawsonLargest cityDawsonArea • Total338 sq mi (880 km2) ...
Опис файлу Опис Схема пересувного механізованого кріплення Джерело Мала гірнича енциклопедія : у 3 т. / за ред. В. С. Білецького. — Донецьк : Донбас, 2004. — ISBN 966-7804-14-3. Автор зображення Редактор енциклопедії - джерела зображення Білецький В.С. Ліцензія Доз...
RSS-affiliated Muslim organization Muslim Rashtriya ManchFormation24 December 2002 (20 years ago) (2002-12-24)HeadquartersDDA Flats, 14-B MIG, Motia Khan, Sadar Bazaar, New Delhi, Delhi 110055Region IndiaKey peopleIndresh KumarParent organisationRashtriya Swayamsevak SanghAffiliationsBharatiya Janata PartySangh ParivarVolunteers 10,000+[1]Websitewww.muslimrashtriyamanch.org The Muslim Rashtriya Manch (MRM; translation: Muslim National Forum) is a Muslim organisatio...
English barrister and judge (1905–1988) For other people named Elizabeth Lane, see Elizabeth Lane (disambiguation). Dame Elizabeth LaneDBEJudge of the High Court of JusticeIn office1965–1979 Personal detailsBornElizabeth Kathleen Coulborn(1905-08-09)9 August 1905Bowden, Cheshire, EnglandDied17 June 1988(1988-06-17) (aged 82)Winchester, Hampshire, EnglandSpouseRandall LaneOccupationBarrister and judge Dame Elizabeth Kathleen Lane, DBE (née Coulborn; 9 August 1905 – 17 June 1988) wa...
Depiction of the folds and woven patterns of loose-hanging clothing on the human form Drapery used as window curtains Drapery is a general word referring to cloths or textiles (Old French draperie, from Late Latin drappus[1]). It may refer to cloth used for decorative purposes – such as around windows – or to the trade of retailing cloth, originally mostly for clothing, formerly conducted by drapers. Drape Drape (draping or fabric drape) is the property of different textil...
Building in Montceaux-lès-Meaux , FranceChâteau de MontceauxIn the 17th centuryLocation within FranceGeneral informationArchitectural styleFrench Renaissance,Town or cityMontceaux-lès-Meaux (Seine-et-Marne)CountryFranceCoordinates48°56′35″N 2°59′10″E / 48.943056°N 2.986111°E / 48.943056; 2.986111Construction startedc. 1520[1]Websitewww.chateaudemontceaux.fr The Château de Montceaux, also known as the Château de Montceaux-en-Brie or the Château...
Двобічно зв'язаний список — вид зв'язаного списку, у якому посилання в кожному вузлі вказують на попередній і на подальший вузол у списку. Вузол двобічно зв'язаного списку складається з трьох полів: вказівника на попередній елемент prev, поля даних data та вказівника next на ...
Israel under De olympiske leker Israels flagg – Flaggbærere IOK–kode ISR NOK Israels olympiske komité Nettstedwww.olympic.one.co.il (he) (en) Israel under Vinter-OL 1994 på Lillehammer Deltakere: 1 utøvere i 1 idrett Flaggbærer Michael Shmerkin Medaljer: Gull0 Sølv0 Bronse0 Totalt0 Olympisk historie (oversikt) Sommerleker 1952 · 1956 · 1960 · 1964 · 1968 · 1972 · 1976 · 1980 · ...
Why Don't WeGenel bilgilerBaşladığı yerLos Angeles, Californiya, AmerikaTarzlarPopMesleklerŞarkıcılarEtkin yıllar2016–günümüzMüzik şirketiAtlanticResmî sitewhydontwemusic.comÜyeler Jonah Marais Corbyn Besson Daniel Seavey Jack Avery Zach Herron Why Don't We (kısaltımı WDW) Zach Herron, Jack Avery, Daniel Seavey, Corbyn Besson ve Jonah Marais'den oluşan Amerikan erkek grubu. 2016 yılında kurulan[1] grup şimdiye kadar bir stüdyo albümü ve altı ...
_Sadhu_India.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
_logo.png){kind=logo}
_W_IMG_2440.jpg)
.jpg)
_v2.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.JPG)
