Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

May 1958 crisis in France

May 1958 crisis
Date13–29 May 1958
Location
Result Fall of the French Fourth Republic
Belligerents
France French Government Units of French Army, French Navy and French Air Force
Commanders and leaders
France René Coty
Pierre Pflimlin
Général d'Armée Raoul Salan
Général d'Armée Jacques Massu
Général d'Armée Aérienne Edmond Jouhaud
Admiral Philippe Auboyneau
Jacques Soustelle
Pierre Lagaillarde
Strength
Government-loyal armed force Counter force armed force
Casualties and losses
None

The May 1958 crisis, also known as the Algiers putsch or the coup of 13 May, was a political crisis in France during the turmoil of the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) which led to the collapse of the Fourth Republic and its replacement by the Fifth Republic led by Charles de Gaulle who returned to power after a twelve-year absence. It started as a political uprising in Algiers on 13 May 1958 and then became a military coup d'état led by a coalition headed by Algiers deputy and reserve airborne officer Pierre Lagaillarde, French Generals Raoul Salan, Edmond Jouhaud, Jean Gracieux, and Jacques Massu, and by Admiral Philippe Auboyneau, commander of the Mediterranean fleet. The coup was supported by former Algerian Governor General Jacques Soustelle and his activist allies.

The coup had as its aim to oppose the formation of Pierre Pflimlin's new government and to impose a change of policies in favor of the right-wing partisans of French Algeria.

Context

Recurrent cabinet crises focused attention on the inherent instability of the Fourth Republic and increased the misgivings of the French Army and of the Pieds-noirs (European Algerians) that the security of French Algeria, an overseas department of France, was being undermined by party politics. Army commanders chafed at what they took to be inadequate and incompetent government support of military efforts to end the war. The feeling was widespread that another debacle like that of Indochina in 1954 was in the offing and that the government would order another overly precipitous pullout and sacrifice French honor to political expediency.[1] The result was the return of Charles de Gaulle.[citation needed]

The coup

After his tour as Governor General, Jacques Soustelle had returned to France to organize support for de Gaulle's return to power, while retaining close ties to the army and the settlers. By early 1958, he had organized a coup d'état, bringing together dissident army officers and colonial officials with sympathetic Gaullists. On 13 May, right-wing elements seized power in Algiers and called for a Government of Public Safety under General de Gaulle. Massu became chairman of the Public Safety Committee and one of the leaders of the revolt.[2] General Salan assumed leadership of a Committee of Public Safety[3] formed to replace the civil authority and pressed the junta's demands that de Gaulle be named by French president René Coty to head a government of national union invested with extraordinary powers to prevent the "abandonment of Algeria". Salan announced on radio that the Army had "provisionally taken over responsibility for the destiny of French Algeria". Under the pressure of Massu, Salan declared Vive de Gaulle! from the balcony of the Algiers Government-General building on 15 May. De Gaulle answered two days later that he was ready to "assume the powers of the Republic".[4] Many worried as they saw this answer as support for the army.[2]: 373–416 

At a 19 May press conference, de Gaulle asserted again that he was at the disposal of the country. When a journalist expressed the concerns of some who feared that he would violate civil liberties, de Gaulle retorted vehemently:

Have I ever done that? Quite the opposite, I have reestablished them when they had disappeared. Who honestly believes that, at age 67, I would start a career as a dictator?[2]

On 24 May, French paratroopers from Algeria landed on Corsica by aircraft, taking the French island in a bloodless action called "Opération Corse." Subsequently, preparations were made in Algeria for "Operation Resurrection," which had as objectives the seizure of Paris and the removal of the French government, through the use of paratroopers and armoured forces based at Rambouillet.[5] "Operation Resurrection" was to be implemented if one of three scenarios occurred: if de Gaulle was not approved as leader of France by Parliament, if de Gaulle asked for military assistance to take power, or if it seemed that the French Communist Party was making any move to take power in France.[6]

Political leaders on many sides agreed to support the General's return to power with the notable exceptions of François Mitterrand, who was a minister in Guy Mollet's Socialist government, Pierre Mendès-France (a member of the Radical-Socialist Party, former Prime Minister), Alain Savary (also a member of the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO)), and the Communist Party. The philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, a noted atheist, said, “I would rather vote for God,” as he would at least be more modest than de Gaulle. Mendès-France and Savary, opposed to their respective parties' support of de Gaulle, would form together, in 1960, the Parti socialiste autonome (PSA, Socialist Autonomous Party), ancestor of the Parti socialiste unifié (PSU, Unified Socialist Party).[7]

De Gaulle's return to power (29 May 1958)

Demonstration on rue du Faubourg-du-Temple in Paris on 1 June

On 29 May President René Coty told parliament that the nation was on the brink of civil war, so he was "turning towards the most illustrious of Frenchmen, towards the man who, in the darkest years of our history, was our chief for the reconquest of freedom and who refused dictatorship in order to re-establish the Republic. I ask General de Gaulle to confer with the head of state and to examine with him what, in the framework of Republican legality, is necessary for the immediate formation of a government of national safety and what can be done, in a fairly short time, for a deep reform of our institutions."[8] De Gaulle accepted Coty's proposal under the precondition that a new constitution would be introduced creating a powerful presidency in which a sole executive, the first of which was to be himself, ruled for seven-year periods. Another condition was that he be granted extraordinary powers for a period of six months.[9]

De Gaulle's newly formed cabinet was approved by the National Assembly on 1 June 1958, by 329 votes against 224, while he was granted the power to govern by ordinances for a six-month period as well as the task to draft a new Constitution.[9]

The May 1958 crisis indicated that the Fourth Republic by 1958 no longer had any support from the French army in Algeria, and was at its mercy even in civilian political matters. This decisive shift in the balance of power in civil-military relations in France in 1958 and the threat of force was the main immediate factor in the return of de Gaulle to power in France.[citation needed]

The new constitution

Charles de Gaulle, pictured in 1958

De Gaulle blamed the institutions of the Fourth Republic for France's political weakness – a Gaullist reading still popular today. As he commissioned the new constitution and was responsible for its overall framework, de Gaulle is sometimes described as the author of the constitution, although it was effectively drafted during the summer of 1958 by the Gaullist Michel Debré. The draft followed closely the propositions in de Gaulle’s speeches at Bayeux in 1946,[10] leading to a strong executive and to a rather presidential regime – the President being granted the responsibility of governing the Council of Ministers,[11] as well as to the adoption of article 16, granting "extraordinary powers" to the president if a state of emergency was proclaimed, and of bicameralism.[citation needed]

Although most politicians supported de Gaulle, Mitterrand, who opposed the new Constitution, famously denounced "a permanent coup d'état" in 1964.[12] On 28 September 1958, a referendum took place and 79.2% of those who voted supported the new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies (Algeria was officially three departments of France, not a colony) were given the choice between immediate independence and the new constitution. All colonies voted for the new constitution and the replacement of the French Union by the French Community, except Guinea – which thus became the first French African colony to gain independence, at the cost of the immediate cessation of all French assistance.[2]: 407 

De Gaulle was elected President of the French Republic and of the African and Malagasy Community on 21 December 1958 by indirect suffrage. He was inaugurated on 8 January 1959. In the meanwhile, de Gaulle had met the German chancellor Konrad Adenauer on 14 September 1958 at his home in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises; he had sent a memorandum to US President Dwight D. Eisenhower on 17 September 1958, recalling his will of national independence; he also took financial measures on 27 December 1958 to reduce the state deficit, and, in Algeria, called for the "peace of the brave" (paix des braves) in October 1958.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Dien Bien Phu: Did the US offer France an A-bomb?". BBC news magazine. 5 May 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d Jonathan, Fenby (2010). The General Charles de Gaulle and the France he saved. Simon & Schuster. pp. 383–4, 389. ISBN 9781847394101.
  3. ^ The term "Committee of Public Safety" recalls the body of that name which acted as the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793–94), a stage of the French Revolution. In effect, by using this term Massu and Salan claimed to be the new Robespierres.
  4. ^ French: « prêt à assumer les pouvoirs de la République »
  5. ^ Crozier, Brian; Mansell, Gerard (July 1960). "France and Algeria". International Affairs. 36 (3). Blackwell Publishing: 310. doi:10.2307/2610008. JSTOR 2610008. S2CID 153591784.
  6. ^ Daniel Gagnon, "Algeria, De Gaulle, and the Birth of the French Fifth Republic." (Providence College History Student Papers. Paper 15. 2014) online.
  7. ^ Philip Thody, The Fifth French Republic: Presidents, Politics and Personalities (1998).
  8. ^ Jonathan Fenby (2013). The General. p. 396. ISBN 9781620878057.
  9. ^ a b W. Scott Haine (2000). The History of France. Greenwood Press. p. 180. ISBN 9780313303289.
  10. ^ Charles De Gaulle (June 16, 1946). "Discours de Bayeux [Speech of Bayeux]" (in French). charles-de-gaulle.org. Archived from the original on May 17, 2011.
  11. ^ See the debates during the July Monarchy and the Bourbon Restoration concerning the role of the King and the role of the President of the Council
  12. ^ François Mitterrand, Le Coup d'Etat permanent, 1964

Further reading

  • Alexander, Martin S. and John FV Keiger, eds. France and the Algerian War, 1954–1962: Strategy, Operations and Diplomacy (Routledge, 2013)
  • Fenby, Jonathan. The General: Charles de Gaulle and the France He Saved (2010)
  • Jackson, Julian. De Gaulle (2005) pp. 70–79
  • Sowerwine, Charles. France since 1870: Culture, Society and the Making of the Republic (2009) ch. 21
Baca informasi lainnya:

Ver artigo principal: Eliminatórias da Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022 – AFC Esta página apresenta os resultados das partidas da segunda fase das eliminatórias asiáticas (AFC) para a Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2022. Esta fase também serve como segunda fase para as eliminatórias para a Copa da Ásia de 2023. Formato Todas as 40 seleções foram sorteadas em oito grupos com cinco seleções cada. Os seis vencedores da primeira fase competem nesta fase. Os oito vencedores e os quatro melhores seg…

العلاقات الأذربيجانية الهايتية أذربيجان هايتي   أذربيجان   هايتي تعديل مصدري - تعديل   العلاقات الأذربيجانية الهايتية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين أذربيجان وهايتي.[1][2][3][4][5] مقارنة بين البلدين هذه مقارنة عامة ومرجعية للدولتين: وجه الم…

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Finnish Steam Locomotive Class C5 – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Finnish Steam Locomotive Class C5Hannoversche Maschinenbau locomotive No 1477 of 1882 0-6-0 at the Finnish Railway Museu…

Karupuak JariangNama lainKerupuk jeringTempat asal IndonesiaDibuat olehOrang MinangkabauBahan utamaJering/Jengkol Karupuak jariang atau kerupuk jengkol adalah jajanan tradisional orang Minangkabau.[1] Makanan ini mempunyai rasa yang gurih dan renyah yang dimakan bersama soto atau nasi yang hangat.[2] Karupuak jariang biasanya dimakan sebagai pelengkap saat makan sehingga lebih nikmat jika karupuak jariang di tambah dengan sambal cabai pedas atau ditaburi kuah cubadak.[3&…

هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (نوفمبر 2019) أرتور إيسلاس معلومات شخصية الميلاد 25 مايو 1938  إل باسو، تكساس  تاريخ الوفاة 15 فبراير 1991 (52 سنة)   مواطنة الولايات المتحدة  الحياة العملية المدرسة الأم…

Below is a list of members of the Order of Merit from the order's creation in 1902 until the present day. The number shown is the individual's place in the wider order of appointment since the Order of Merit's inception;   the purple colour denotes the Sovereign.   the blue colour denotes honorary members.   the yellow colour denotes current members. Member number Country Image Name Date of appointment Lifetime Occupation 1. The Earl Roberts 26 June 1902 30 Septembe…

1926 book by Jan Smuts This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Holism and Evolution AuthorJan SmutsCountrySouth AfricaLanguageEnglishSubjectPhilosophyPublisherMacmillan Inc.Publication date1926 Holism and Evolution is a 1926 book by South African statesman Jan Smuts, in which he…

1987 greatest hits album by Gary MorrisHitsGreatest hits album by Gary MorrisReleasedOctober 22, 1987GenreCountryLength46:07LabelWarner Bros.Producer Bob Montgomery Gary Morris Jim Ed Norman Jimmy Bowen Marshall Morgan Paul Worley Steve Dorff Gary Morris chronology What If We Fall in Love?(1987) Hits(1987) Every Christmas(1988) Hits is the first compilation album by American country music artist Gary Morris. It was released on October 1987 via Warner Bros. Records.[1] Track listi…

Uzbekistan padaOlimpiadeKode IOCUZBKONKomite Olimpiade Nasional Republik UzbekistanSitus webwww.olympic.uz (dalam bahasa Uzbek)Medali 8 6 17 Total 31 Penampilan Musim Panas1996200020042008201220162020Penampilan Musim Dingin19941998200220062010201420182022Penampilan terkait lainnya Kekaisaran Rusia (1900–1912) Uni Soviet (1952–1988) Tim Persatuan (1992) Uzbekistan mula-mula berpartisipasi dalam Olimpiade sebagai negara merdeka pada 1994, dan telah mengirim para a…

38°45′N 48°28′E / 38.750°N 48.467°E / 38.750; 48.467 1973[1] Barzavu adalah desa yang terletak di rayon Lerik, Azerbaijan, daerah berbukit didekat perbatasan dengan Iran. Barzavu terletak 150 mil sebelah selatan dari Baku dan terkenal sebagai tempat tinggal Shirali Muslimov, gembala Talish yang dipercaya merupakan manusia tertua di dunia. Walaupun ia tidak memiliki sertifikat kelahiran, tanggal kelahirannya diberi dalam paspornya tahun 1805, jika benar, me…

Semi-automatic pistol Heckler & Koch USP9 Heckler & Koch USP9TypeSemi-automatic pistolPlace of originGermanyService historyIn service1993–presentUsed bySee UsersProduction historyDesignerHelmut WeldleDesigned1989–1992ManufacturerHeckler & Koch, Hellenic Defence Systems[1]Produced1993–presentVariantsSee Variants:SpecificationsMass748 g (26.4 oz) without magazineLength194 mm (7.6 in)Barrel length108 mm (4.3 in)Width32…

Place des Pyramides Place des Pyramides adalah lapangan umum di arondisemen ke-1 Paris, Prancis. Itu terletak di tengah Rue de Rivoli, di persimpangannya dengan Rue des Pyramides dan Avenue du General Lemonnier, di ujung timur Taman Tuileries. Alun-alun ini dinamai untuk jalan, Rue des Pyramides, dan jalan itu dinamai untuk Pertempuran Piramida, kemenangan Napoleon yang diraih di Mesir pada tahun 1798.[1] Catatan ^ La place des Pyramides - Paris 1e lbsPariwisata di ParisLandmark Arc de T…

Опис файлу Опис Емблема чемпіонату України з футболу 1993—1994 Джерело http://ukranianfootball.narod.ru/ukraine.html Час створення 1993 Автор зображення ФФУ Ліцензія див. нижче Ліцензування Це логотип (емблема) організації, товару, або заходу, що перебуває під захистом авторських прав та/або є това…

Place in Upper Austria, AustriaSankt Georgen am Fillmannsbach Coat of armsSankt Georgen am FillmannsbachLocation within AustriaCoordinates: 48°07′30″N 13°01′10″E / 48.12500°N 13.01944°E / 48.12500; 13.01944CountryAustriaStateUpper AustriaDistrictBraunau am InnGovernment • MayorFranz Wengler (FPÖ)Area[1] • Total7.21 km2 (2.78 sq mi)Elevation488 m (1,601 ft)Population (2018-01-01)[2] •…

Potgietersrus CommandoPotgietersrus Commando emblemCountry South AfricaAllegiance  Republic of South Africa  Republic of South Africa Branch  South African Army  South African Army TypeInfantryRoleLight InfantrySizeOne BattalionPart ofSouth African Infantry CorpsArmy Territorial ReserveGarrison/HQPotgietersrusMilitary unit Potgietersrus Commando was a light infantry regiment of the South African Army. It formed part of the South African Army Infantry Formation as we…

Japanese footballer (born 1994) This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (November 2022) Shinji Yamada Yamada in 2022 with Viktoria BerlinPersonal informationDate of birth (1994-02-24) 24 February 1994 (age 29)Place of birth Kyoto, JapanHeight 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in)[1]Position(s) Left midfielderTeam informationCurrent team Berliner AK 07Number 81Youth care…

HilifaronoDesaSalah satu rumah adat di Desa HilifaronoHilifaronoNegara IndonesiaProvinsiSumatera UtaraKabupatenNias SelatanKecamatanOnolaluKode pos22869Kode Kemendagri12.14.33.2004 Luas3,12km² - 30dpl/mJumlah penduduk701 jiwa (BPS Nisel 2019)Kepadatan271 jiwa/km² (BPS Nisel 2019)Jumlah RT3 DusunJumlah RW-Jumlah KK271 Kepala Keluarga 2019 Artikel ini mungkin mengandung riset asli. Anda dapat membantu memperbaikinya dengan memastikan pernyataan yang dibuat dan menambahkan referensi. Pernyat…

Airside people mover at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport This article is about the underground people mover at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport. For the elevated people mover that serves the airport's rental car center, see ATL SkyTrain. The Plane TrainConcourse A eastbound platform in 2011OverviewLocaleHartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International AirportTerminiDomestic TerminalInternational TerminalStations8ServiceTypePeople moverRolling stock59 × Bombardier C…

Medical conditionImmature teratomaMicrograph of the primitive neuroepithelium of an immature teratoma. H&E stain.SpecialtyOncology An immature teratoma is a teratoma that contains anaplastic immature elements, and is often synonymous with malignant teratoma.[1] A teratoma is a tumor of germ cell origin, containing tissues from more than one germ cell line,[2][3][4] It can be ovarian or testicular in its origin.[4] and are almost always benign.[5 …

2013 single by Avril Lavigne Let Me GoSingle by Avril Lavigne featuring Chad Kroegerfrom the album Avril Lavigne ReleasedOctober 15, 2013Genre Soft rock Length4:27 (Album Version)3:57 (Radio Edit)LabelEpicSongwriter(s) Avril Lavigne Chad Kroeger David Hodges Producer(s) Chad Kroeger David Hodges Avril Lavigne singles chronology Rock n Roll (2013) Let Me Go (2013) Hello Kitty (2014) Chad Kroeger singles chronology Porn Star Dancing(2010) Let Me Go(2013) Audio samplefilehelpMusic videoLet …

Bihar berada di timur laut India. Gubernur Bihar adalah seorang kepala nominal dan perwakilan Presiden India di negara bagian Bihar. Gubernur dipilih oleh Presiden untuk masa jabatan selama 5 tahun. Hingga 2014[update] Keshari Nath Tripathi adalah gubernur Bihar. Kekuasaan dan fungsi Lihat pula: Kekuasaan dan fungsi Gubernur Gubernur Bihar # Nama Memegang jabatan Meninggalkan jabatan 1 Sir James Sifton 1 April 1936 11 Maret 1937 2 Sir Maurice Garnier Hallett 11 Maret 1937 5 Agustus 1939 …

나주Naju Korean nameHangul나주역Hanja羅州驛Revised RomanizationNajuyeokMcCune–ReischauerRajuyŏk General informationLocationSongwol-dong, Naju, South JeollaSouth KoreaCoordinates35°00′51″N 126°43′01″E / 35.01426°N 126.716994°E / 35.01426; 126.716994Operated byKorailLine(s)Honam LinePlatforms2Tracks4ConstructionStructure typeAbovegroundHistoryOpenedJuly 1, 1913Services Preceding station Following station Gwangju Songjeongtowards Seoul, Yongsan or Haen…

Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregion of Canada and the United States Northern short grasslandsPrairie in southeastern Alberta, CanadaEcologyRealmNearcticBiomeTemperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublandsBorders List Montana Valley and Foothill grasslandsNorthern mixed grasslandsWestern short grasslandsNebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslandsWyoming Basin shrub steppeSouth Central Rockies forestsColorado Rockies forests Bird species231[1]Mammal species78[1]Geograp…

Demographics of England This article is about all people living in Cornwall. For the ethnic group, see Cornish people. This article cites its sources but does not provide page references. You can help providing page numbers for existing citations. (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Cornwall is a unitary authority and ceremonial county of England in the United Kingdom. At the 2011 census it had a population of 532,000.[1] Cornwall is the homeland of the C…

Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada.Este aviso fue puesto el 9 de julio de 2014. El Peugeot 905 fue un sport prototipo presentado y desarrollado en 1990. El coche ganó las 24 Horas de Le Mans en 1992 con el equipo de Derek Warwick, Yannick Dalmas y Mark Blundell. Esta victoria fue seguida en 1993 por el equipo de Geoff Brabham, Christophe Bouchut y Éric Hélary, en el 905B. Además de eso, el coche ganó un título de pilotos y equipos en…

Paco Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Francisco Jémez MartínTanggal lahir 18 April 1970 (umur 53)Tempat lahir Las Palmas, SpanyolTinggi 1,80 m (5 ft 11 in)Posisi bermain Bek tengahInformasi klubKlub saat ini Rayo Vallecano (pelatih)Karier junior CórdobaKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1989–1991 Córdoba 1991–1992 Murcia 35 (0)1992–1993 Rayo Vallecano 38 (0)1993–1998 Deportivo La Coruña 94 (1)1998–2004 Zaragoza 168 (1)2004 Rayo Vallecano 17 (0)2005–2006 Lugo Ti…

National highway in India For the old National Highway 20, see National Highway 154 (India). National Highway 20National Highway 20 in Red on India mapRoute informationPart of AH20 AH42 Length658 km (409 mi)Major junctionsFromBakhtiyarpurToSatabhaya LocationCountryIndiaStatesBihar, Jharkhand, Odisha Highway system Roads in India Expressways National State Asian ← NH 31→ NH 16 National Highway 20 (NH 20) is a National Highway in India. This highway originates from Bakhtiyarpur …

6th King Edward's Own CavalryActive31 January 1842 – 1921Country British IndiaAllegianceBritish CrownBranch British Indian ArmyTypeCavalrySizeRegimentEngagementsGwalior campaignFirst Anglo-Sikh WarAnglo-Egyptian WarFirst World War Western Front Sinai and Palestine Campaign Battle honoursSee belowMilitary unit The 6th King Edward's Own Cavalry was a cavalry regiment in the Bengal Army (1842–1895) and the British Indian Army (1895–1921) until it was amalgamated with the 7th Ha…

Военно-воздушные силы Эстонииэст. Eesti Õhuvägi Эмблема ВВС Эстонии Годы существования 21 ноября 1918 года — 1940[1] с 16 декабря 1991 года[2] Страна  Эстония Подчинение Министерство обороны Эстонии Входит в Вооружённые силы Эстонии Тип Военно-воздушные силы Участие в Война з…

Acest articol sau această secțiune are bibliografia incompletă sau inexistentă. Puteți contribui prin adăugarea de referințe în vederea susținerii bibliografice a afirmațiilor pe care le conține. Harta Lituaniei Lituania, unul dintre statele baltice, se învecinează la nord cu Letonia, la est cu Belarus, iar la sud cu Polonia. Râul Nemunas/Neman, care traversează sud-estul țării, trasează granița naturală cu enclava ruseasca de pe malul Mării Baltice, Kaliningrad. La vărsare…

Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya