Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

Fringe science

Fringe science refers to ideas whose attributes include being highly speculative or relying on premises already refuted.[1] Fringe science theories are often advanced by people who have no traditional academic science background, or by researchers outside the mainstream discipline.[2]: 58 [3] The general public has difficulty distinguishing between science and its imitators,[2]: 173  and in some cases a "yearning to believe or a generalized suspicion of experts is a very potent incentive to accepting pseudoscientific claims".[2]: 176 

The term "fringe science" covers everything from novel hypotheses which can be tested by means of the scientific method to wild ad hoc hypotheses and mumbo jumbo. This has resulted in a tendency to dismiss all fringe science as the domain of pseudoscientists, hobbyists, and quacks.[4]

A concept that was once accepted by the mainstream scientific community may become fringe science because of a later evaluation of previous research.[5] For example, focal infection theory, which held that focal infections of the tonsils or teeth are a primary cause of systemic disease, was once considered to be medical fact. It has since been dismissed because of lack of evidence.

Description

The boundary between fringe science and pseudoscience is disputed. The connotation of "fringe science" is that the enterprise is rational but is unlikely to produce good results for a variety of reasons, including incomplete or contradictory evidence.[2]: 183  Pseudoscience, however, is something that is not scientific but is incorrectly characterised as science.

The term may be considered pejorative. For example, Lyell D. Henry Jr. wrote that, "fringe science [is] a term also suggesting kookiness."[6] This characterization is perhaps inspired by the eccentric behavior of many researchers of the kind known colloquially (and with considerable historical precedent) as mad scientists.[7]

Although most fringe science is rejected, the scientific community has come to accept some portions of it.[2]: 172  One example of such is plate tectonics, an idea which had its origin in the fringe science of continental drift and was rejected for decades.[2]: 5 

The confusion between science and pseudoscience, between honest scientific error and genuine scientific discovery, is not new, and it is a permanent feature of the scientific landscape .... Acceptance of new science can come slowly.[2]: 161 

Examples

Historical

Some historical ideas that are considered to have been refuted by mainstream science are:

  • Wilhelm Reich's work with orgone, a physical energy he claimed to have discovered, contributed to his alienation from the psychiatric community. He was eventually sentenced to two years in a federal prison, where he died.[8] At that time and continuing today, scientists disputed his claim that he had scientific evidence for the existence of orgone.[9][10] Nevertheless, amateurs and a few fringe researchers continued to believe that orgone is real.[11][12][13]
  • Focal infection theory (FIT) as the primary cause of systemic disease rapidly became accepted by mainstream dentistry and medicine after World War I. This acceptance was largely based upon what later turned out to be fundamentally flawed studies. As a result, millions of people were subjected to needless dental extractions and surgeries.[14] The original studies supporting FIT began falling out of favor in the 1930s. By the late 1950s, it was regarded as a fringe theory.
  • The Clovis First theory held that the Clovis culture was the first culture in North America. It was long regarded as a mainstream theory until mounting evidence of a pre-Clovis culture discredited it.[15][16][17]

Modern

Relatively recent fringe sciences include:

  • Aubrey de Grey, featured in a 2006 60 Minutes special report, is studying human longevity.[18] He calls his work "strategies for engineered negligible senescence" (SENS). Many mainstream scientists[19] believe his research is fringe science (especially his view of the importance of nuclear epimutations and his timeline for antiaging therapeutics). In a 2005 article in Technology Review (part of a larger series), it was stated that "SENS is highly speculative. Many of its proposals have not been reproduced, nor could they be reproduced with today's scientific knowledge and technology. Echoing Myhrvold, we might charitably say that de Grey's proposals exist in a kind of antechamber of science, where they wait (possibly in vain) for independent verification. SENS does not compel the assent of many knowledgeable scientists; but neither is it demonstrably wrong."[20]
  • A nuclear fusion reaction called cold fusion which occurs near room temperature and pressure was reported by chemists Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons in March 1989. Numerous research efforts at the time were unable to replicate their results.[21] Subsequently, a number of scientists have worked on cold fusion or have participated in international conferences on it. In 2004, the United States Department of Energy commissioned a panel on cold fusion to reexamine the concept. They wanted to determine whether their policies concerning it should be altered because of new evidence.
  • The theory of abiogenic petroleum origin holds that petroleum was formed from deep carbon deposits, perhaps dating to the formation of the Earth. The ubiquity of hydrocarbons in the solar system is taken as evidence that there may be a great deal more petroleum on Earth than commonly thought, and that petroleum may originate from carbon-bearing fluids which migrate upward from the Earth's mantle. Abiogenic hypotheses saw a revival in the last half of the twentieth century by Russian and Ukrainian scientists. More interest was generated in the West after the 1999 publication by Thomas Gold of The Deep Hot Biosphere. Gold's version of the theory is partly based on the existence of a biosphere composed of thermophile bacteria in the Earth's crust, which might explain the existence of certain biomarkers in extracted petroleum.

Accepted as mainstream

Some theories that were once rejected as fringe science, but were eventually accepted as mainstream science, include:

Responding to fringe science

Michael W. Friedlander has suggested some guidelines for responding to fringe science, which, he argues, is a more difficult problem[2]: 174  than scientific misconduct. His suggested methods include impeccable accuracy, checking cited sources, not overstating orthodox science, thorough understanding of the Wegener continental drift example, examples of orthodox science investigating radical proposals, and prepared examples of errors from fringe scientists.[2]: 178-9 

Friedlander suggests that fringe science is necessary so that mainstream science will not atrophy. Scientists must evaluate the plausibility of each new fringe claim, and certain fringe discoveries "will later graduate into the ranks of accepted" — while others "will never receive confirmation".[2]: 173 

Margaret Wertheim profiled many "outsider scientists" in her book Physics on the Fringe, who receive little or no attention from professional scientists. She describes all of them as trying to make sense of the world using the scientific method, but in the face of not being able to understand the complex theories of modern science. She also finds it fair that credentialed scientists do not bother spending a lot of time learning about and explaining problems with the fringe theories of uncredentialed scientists, since the authors of those theories have not taken the time to understand the mainstream theories they aim to disprove.[30]

Controversies

As Donald E. Simanek asserts, "Too often speculative and tentative hypotheses of cutting edge science are treated as if they were scientific truths, and so accepted by a public eager for answers." But the public is ignorant of the fact that "As science progresses from ignorance to understanding it must pass through a transitional phase of confusion and uncertainty."[31]

The media also play a role in propagating the belief that certain fields of science are controversial. In their 2003 paper "Optimising Public Understanding of Science and Technology in Europe: A Comparative Perspective", Jan Nolin et al. write that "From a media perspective it is evident that controversial science sells, not only because of its dramatic value, but also since it is often connected to high-stake societal issues."[32]

See also

Books

References

  1. ^ Dutch, Steven I (January 1982). "Notes on the nature of fringe science". Journal of Geological Education. 30 (1): 6–13. Bibcode:1982JGeoE..30....6D. doi:10.5408/0022-1368-30.1.6. ISSN 0022-1368. OCLC 427103550. ERIC EJ260409.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Friedlander, Michael W. (1995). At the Fringes of Science. OCLC 42309381.[verification needed]
  3. ^ Isaac Asimov (1980). Left Hand of the Electron. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-440-94717-2.
  4. ^ David Bell (December 1999). "Secret science". Science and Public Policy. 26 (6): 450. doi:10.1093/spp/26.6.450.
  5. ^ Beyerstein, Barry L. (July 1995). "Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience" (PDF). INFOMED - Red de Salud de Cuba.
  6. ^ Henry Lyell D. (1981). "Unorthodox science as a popular activity". The Journal of American Culture. 4 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1981.0402_1.x.
  7. ^ Runco, Mark A; Pritzker, Steven R (1999). Encyclopedia of Creativity. Vol. i–z. p. 10. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)[verification needed]
  8. ^ "Two Scientists Jailed; Pair Sentenced in Maine in Sale of 'Accumulators'". The New York Times. 12 March 1957. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
  9. ^ Williams, William F. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy. Facts on File. pp. 36, 55, 68, 248–249, 298–299. ISBN 081603351X.
  10. ^ Gordin, Michael D. (2012). The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe. University of Chicago Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 978-0226101729.
  11. ^ Klee, Gerald D. (2005). "THE RESURRECTION OF WILHELM REICH AND ORGONE THERAPY". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 4 (1).
  12. ^ Simon, Matt (26 November 2014). "Fantastically Wrong: Why Is the Sky Blue? It's Packed With Sexy Energy, of Course". Wired. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
  13. ^ "Orgone Energy". Zephyr Technology. Archived from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
  14. ^ Pallasch, TJ (March 2000). "The focal infection theory: appraisal and reappraisal". Journal of the California Dental Association. 28 (3): 194–200. doi:10.1080/19424396.2000.12223068. PMID 11326533. S2CID 42277199.
  15. ^ Whitley, David S. (2009) Cave paintings and the human spirit p. 98
  16. ^ Waters, Michael (25 March 2011). "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas". Science. 331 (6024): 1599–1603. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1599W. doi:10.1126/science.1201855. PMID 21436451. S2CID 206531951.
  17. ^ Wilford, John (2011-03-24). "Arrowheads Found in Texas Dial Back Arrival of Humans in America". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  18. ^ "The quest for immortality: Want to live 500 years? One scientist says it may be possible one day". CBS News. 2005-12-28.
  19. ^ Warner, H.; Anderson, J.; Austad, S.; Bergamini, E.; Bredesen, D.; Butler, R.; Carnes, B. A.; Clark, B. F. C.; Cristofalo, V.; Faulkner, J.; Guarente, L.; Harrison, D. E.; Kirkwood, T.; Lithgow, G.; Martin, G.; Masoro, E.; Melov, S.; Miller, R. A.; Olshansky, S. J.; Partridge, L.; Pereira-Smith, O.; Perls, T.; Richardson, A.; Smith, J.; Von Zglinicki, T.; Wang, E.; Wei, J. Y.; Williams, T. F. (Nov 2005). "Science fact and the SENS agenda. What can we reasonably expect from ageing research?". EMBO Reports. 6 (11): 1006–1008. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400555. ISSN 1469-221X. PMC 1371037. PMID 16264422.
  20. ^ Pontin, Jason (2006-07-11). "Is defeating aging only a dream?". Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2012-09-11. Retrieved 2007-04-25. (includes June 9, 2006 critiques and rebuttals)
  21. ^ "A report from the American Physical Society spring meeting – 1–2 May 1989 Baltimore, MD Special session on cold fusion". Retrieved 2009-04-14.
  22. ^ Bell, David, 2005, Science, Technology and Culture, Open University Press, p. 134, ISBN 978-0-335-21326-9
  23. ^ Oreskes, Naomi (2003), Plate tectonics: an insider's history of the modern theory of the Earth p. 72
  24. ^ Conklin, Wendy (2005) Mysteries in History: Ancient History p. 39
  25. ^ Hunt, Patrick (2007) Ten Discoveries That Rewrote History
  26. ^ JDobrzycki J Editor (1973) The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory p. 311
  27. ^ Lemonick, Michael D. (2003) Echo of the Big Bang Princeton University Press p. 7
  28. ^ Beyerstein, Barry L. (July 1995). "Distinguishing science from pseudoscience" (PDF). www.sld.cu. p. 17. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  29. ^ Velasquez-Manoff, Moises (2013). An Epidemic of Absence: A New Way of Understanding Allergies and Autoimmune Diseases. Simon and Schuster. p. 40. ISBN 9781439199398. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  30. ^ NPR Podcast
  31. ^ Simanek, Donald. "Cutting edge science". Archived from the original on 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2008-04-01.
  32. ^ Nolin, Jan; et al. "Optimising public understanding of science: A comparative perspective" (PDF). p. 632. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-12.

Bibliography

External links

Baca informasi lainnya:

Artikel ini bukan mengenai Kereta api Senja Mataram. Kereta api MataramKereta api Mataram saat meninggalkan Stasiun Cikarang setelah disusul dengan KA Argo Parahyangan.Informasi umumJenis layananKereta api antarkotaStatusBeroperasiDaerah operasiDaerah Operasi VI YogyakartaMulai beroperasi15 Juni 2017Operator saat iniPT Kereta Api IndonesiaLintas pelayananStasiun awalSolo BalapanJumlah pemberhentianLihatlah di bawahStasiun akhirPasar SenenJarak tempuh570 kmWaktu tempuh rerata8 jam 05 menit[1&…

В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с фамилиями Андроникашвили и Пильняк, Борис. Борис Андроникашвилигруз. ბორის ბორისის ძე ანდრონიკაშვილი Имя при рождении Борис Борисович Пильняк Дата рождения 28 октября 1934(1934-10-28) Место рождения Москва, СССР Дата…

Fratta Polesine Gemeente in Italië Situering Regio Veneto (VEN) Provincie Rovigo (RO) Coördinaten 45° 2′ NB, 11° 39′ OL Algemeen Oppervlakte 20,9 km² Inwoners (1 januari 2018) 2.615[1] (132 inw./km²) Hoogte 11 m Overig Postcode 45025 Netnummer 0425 Beschermheilige Petrus Naam inwoner frattensi ISTAT-code 029024 Portaal    Italië Fratta Polesine is een gemeente in de Italiaanse provincie Rovigo (regio Veneto) en telt 2756 inwoners (31-12-2004). De oppervlakte …

У Вікіпедії є статті про інших людей із прізвищем Сьюелл. Кітті СьюеллНародилася 1951ШвеціяКраїна  Швеція[1] Канада Велика БританіяДіяльність письменниця-романісткаAlma mater Університет Британської Колумбії і Handsworth Secondary SchooldЗнання мов англійська[1] Кітті …

Pizzi Informasi pribadiNama lengkap Luis Miguel Afonso FernandesTanggal lahir 6 Oktober 1989 (umur 34)Tempat lahir Bragança, PortugalTinggi 1,72 m (5 ft 7+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain PenyerangInformasi klubKlub saat ini BenficaNomor 21Karier junior1999–2007 Bragança2007–2008 BragaKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)2007 Bragança 4 (1)2008–2012 Braga 2 (0)2008–2009 → Ribeirão (pinjaman) 25 (1)2009 → Covilhã (pinjaman) 14 (4)2010–2011 → Paços Ferreira (pin…

Esta é a lista de prefeitos da cidade de Maceió, capital do estado brasileiro de Alagoas.   Mandatários eleitos por votação direta   Mandatários que assumiram o governo por serem vice-governadores   Mandatários eleitos por votação indireta ou que assumiram na qualidade de representantes do Poder Legislativo   Mandatários nomeados diretamente pelo governo central em épocas de convulsão político-social e ditadura militar Nº Prefeito Imagem Part…

Coordenadas: 49° 09' 19 N 4° 04' 47 E Ludes   Comuna francesa    Localização LudesLocalização de Ludes na França Coordenadas 49° 09' 19 N 4° 04' 47 E País  França Região Grande Leste Departamento Marna Características geográficas Área total 12,22 km² População total (2018) 663 hab. Densidade 54,3 hab./km² Código Postal 51500 Código INSEE 51333 Ludes é uma comuna francesa na região administrativa do Grande L…

French cyclist This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Magalie PottierPersonal informationNationalityFrenchBorn (1989-03-16) 1…

Sanjō 三条市Kota BenderaLambangLocation of Sanjō in Niigata PrefectureNegara JepangWilayahChūbuPrefekturNiigataPemerintahan • WalikotaIsato KunisadaLuas • Total431,97 km2 (16,678 sq mi)Populasi (Januari 1, 2020) • Total95.153 • Kepadatan220/km2 (600/sq mi)Zona waktuUTC+9 (Japan Standard Time)Simbol kota • PohonPinus parviflora• BungaLilium rubellumNomor telepon0256-34-5511Alamat2-3-1 Asahi-chō, San…

Artikel ini perlu diwikifikasi agar memenuhi standar kualitas Wikipedia. Anda dapat memberikan bantuan berupa penambahan pranala dalam, atau dengan merapikan tata letak dari artikel ini. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, klik [tampil] di bagian kanan. Mengganti markah HTML dengan markah wiki bila dimungkinkan. Tambahkan pranala wiki. Bila dirasa perlu, buatlah pautan ke artikel wiki lainnya dengan cara menambahkan [[ dan ]] pada kata yang bersangkutan (lihat WP:LINK untuk keterangan lebih lanjut). …

This article is about AIK's bandy department. For other departments of the club, see Allmänna Idrottsklubben. Ice hockey team in Stockholm, SwedenAIKCityStockholm, SwedenLeagueElitserienFounded15 February 1891; 132 years ago (1891-02-15)Home arenaAIK ArenaHead coachAndreas BergwallWebsiteaikbandy.se Home colours Away colours Women's team AIK Bandy is the Bandy section of sports club Allmänna Idrottsklubben, currently located in Solna, which is just north of Stockholm. Former …

This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (June 2018) Maya Samhita (Sanskrit:मय संहिता,Mayasaṁhitā) is a treatise on Hindu Shilpa Shastras. A certain Maya is said to have written this book along with Hora Shastra.[1] See also Mamuni Mayan References ^ Shastri, Ajay Mitra (1969). India as seen in the Bṛhatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira. Motilal Banarsidass…

Ottoman political family of Albanian origin Köprülü is also the Turkish name of a town in North Macedonia known as Veles, founded by this family. The Köprülü family (Turkish: Köprülü ailesi, pronounced [ˈcœp.ɾy.ly]) was a noble family of Albanian origin in the Ottoman Empire.[1][2] The family hailed from the town of Rudnik (near Berat) in the Sanjak of Vlora and provided six Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire (including Kara Mustafa Pasha, who was adopted), w…

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Megamind: Ultimate Showdown – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 2010 video gameMegamind: Ultimate ShowdownNorth American cover art for Xbox 360Developer(s)THQ Studio Australia (PS3, Xbo…

Former NASCAR team This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Team Rensi Motorsports – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2017) (Learn …

This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: Parliament of Gabon – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2020) Parliament of Gabon Parlement du GabonTypeTypeBicameral HousesNational AssemblySenateLeadershipPresident of the SenatePaulette Missambo since 18 September 2023 President o…

ДеревняЕфимовы 58°56′56″ с. ш. 49°46′21″ в. д.HGЯO Страна  Россия Субъект Федерации Кировская область Муниципальный район Слободской Сельское поселение Денисовское История и география Первое упоминание 1802 Прежние названия Ивана Костина, Железные Часовой пояс UTC+3:…

Princess Protection ProgramPoster promosiSkenarioAnnie DeYoungCeritaAnnie DeYoungDavid MorgasenSutradaraAllison Liddi-BrownPemeranDemi LovatoSelena GomezMusikJohn Van TongerenNegara asalAmerika SerikatBahasa asliInggrisProduksiProduserDanielle WeinstockSinematografiDavid A. MakinPenyuntingMark ConteDurasi89 menitRumah produksiRainforest ProductionsRilisJaringan asliDisney ChannelRilis asli26 Juni 2009 (2009-06-26)Pranala luarSitus web Princess Protection Program adalah Disney Channel Origin…

River in Pantai Minyak Beku, Batu PahatBatu Pahat RiverNative nameSungai Batu Pahat (Malay)LocationCountryPantai Minyak Beku, Batu Pahat (Bandar Penggaram)Physical characteristicsSource  • locationSimpang Kanan, Batu Pahat Mouth  • locationPantai Minyak Beku, Batu Pahat, Johor The Batu Pahat River (Malay: Sungai Batu Pahat) is the river originating from Sungai Simpang Kiri and Sungai Simpang Kanan (in which the river split as Sungai Bekok and S…

Species of starfish Solaster endeca Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Echinodermata Class: Asteroidea Order: Valvatida Family: Solasteridae Genus: Solaster Species: S. endeca Binomial name Solaster endeca(Linnaeus, 1771) [1] Synonyms Asterias alboverrucosa Brandt, 1835 Asterias aspera O.F. Müller, 1776 Asterias endeca Linnaeus, 1771 Asterias rumphii Parelius, 1768 Solaster endeca decemradiata Sladen, 1889 Solaster galaxides Verrill, 1909 Solaster…

Daimyō (大名code: ja is deprecated ) berasal dari kata Daimyōshu (大名主code: ja is deprecated , kepala keluarga terhormat) yang berarti orang yang memiliki pengaruh besar di suatu wilayah. Di dalam masyarakat samurai di Jepang, istilah daimyō digunakan untuk samurai yang memiliki hak atas tanah yang luas (tuan tanah) dan memiliki banyak bushi sebagai pengikut. Pada zaman Muromachi, Shugoshoku adalah nama jabatan yang diberikan kepada kelas penguasa untuk menjaga wilayah feodal yang dise…

1932 children's novel by John Buchan The Magic Walking Stick AuthorJohn BuchanCountryEnglandLanguageEnglishGenreChildren's novelPublisherHodder & Stoughton[1]Publication date1932[1]Media typePrintPages215[1] The Magic Walking Stick is a 1932 novel by the Scottish author John Buchan, his only novel for children. The first edition was illustrated by John Morton Sale. Plot The novel relates the adventures of Bill, an English schoolboy from a wealthy family. When Bil…

This article is about the 2014 film. For other similarly-named media, see Winter's Tale (disambiguation). 2014 American filmWinter's TaleTheatrical release posterDirected byAkiva GoldsmanWritten byAkiva GoldsmanBased onWinter's Taleby Mark HelprinProduced by Akiva Goldsman Marc E. Platt Michael Tadross Tony Allard Starring Colin Farrell Jessica Brown Findlay Jennifer Connelly William Hurt Eva Marie Saint Russell Crowe CinematographyCaleb DeschanelEdited by Wayne Wahrman Tim Squyres Music by Hans…

Historic hotel in Crystal Bay, Nevada, United States United States historic placeCal-Vada Lodge HotelU.S. National Register of Historic Places Cal-Vada Lodge Hotel, October 2021Show map of NevadaShow map of the United StatesLocation24 Stateline RoadCrystal Bay, NevadaUnited StatesCoordinates39°13′38″N 120°0′16″W / 39.22722°N 120.00444°W / 39.22722; -120.00444Arealess than one acreBuilt1935Architectural styleBungalow/craftsmanNRHP reference No.94…

Agujas de Chamonix Las Agujas de Chamonix, vertiente sudeste. En primer plano el glaciar de Leschaux y luego el Mer de GlaceUbicación geográficaContinente EuropaCordillera Macizo del Mont Blanc (en los Alpes del Mont Blanc)Ubicación administrativaPaís  FranciaDivisión Alta SaboyaCaracterísticasMáxima cota Aiguille du Midi (3.843 m s. n. m.)Cumbres Aiguille du Midi[editar datos en Wikidata] Las Agujas de Chamonix (en francés, Aiguilles de Chamonix; en italiano Guglie di Cha…

AirportTours Val de Loire AirportAéroport Tours Val de LoireBase Aérienne 604Tours Val de LoireIATA: TUFICAO: LFOTSummaryAirport typePublic / militaryOperatorMinistère de la Défense (FASF)ServesTours, FranceElevation AMSL357 ft / 109 mCoordinates47°25′55″N 000°43′23″E / 47.43194°N 0.72306°E / 47.43194; 0.72306Websitewww.tours.aeroport.frMapsLocation of Centre-Val de Loire region in FranceLFOTLocation of airport in Centre-Val de Loire regionR…

Russian pop musician (born 1972) Aleksey PotekhinBackground informationBirth nameAleksey Yevgenevich PotekhinBorn (1972-04-15) April 15, 1972 (age 51)Novokuybyshevsk, Samara Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet UnionOccupation(s)Singer, producer, musician, broadcasterWebsiterukivverh.suMusical artist Aleksey Yevgenevich Potekhin (Russian: Алексей Евгеньевич Потехин; born 15 April 1972)[1] is a Russian pop musician. Alongside Sergey Zhukov,[2] Potekhin was a m…

2018 film by Aziz Jindani The Donkey KingFilm posterDirected byAziz JindaniWritten by Aziz Jindani Kamran Khimani Starring Jan Rambo Ismail Tara Hina Dilpazeer Ghulam Mohiuddin Jawed Sheikh Edited byFaisal ShaikhMusic byVarious artistsShani Arshad (score)ProductioncompanyTalisman StudiosDistributed byGeo FilmsPantera FilmRelease date 13 October 2018 (2018-10-13) Running time105 min[1]CountryPakistanLanguageUrduBox officeRs. 40.20 crore (US$1.4 million)[2]…

  Metriorhynchidae Rango temporal: Jurásico Medio - Cretácico Inferior 170 Ma - 135 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N MetriorhynchusTaxonomíaReino: AnimaliaFilo: ChordataClase: SauropsidaSubclase: DiapsidaInfraclase: Archosauromorpha(sin rango): MesoeucrocodyliaSuperorden: CrocodylomorphaSuborden: ThalattosuchiaSuperfamilia: MetriorhynchoideaFamilia: MetriorhynchidaeFitzinger, 1843[1]​Subfamilias Geosaurinae Metriorhynchinae Sinonimia Geosauridae Andrews, 1913[2]​ &#…

此條目需要补充更多来源。 (2023年12月18日)请协助補充多方面可靠来源以改善这篇条目,无法查证的内容可能會因為异议提出而被移除。致使用者:请搜索一下条目的标题(来源搜索:羅塞林 — 网页、新闻、书籍、学术、图像),以检查网络上是否存在该主题的更多可靠来源(判定指引)。 貢比涅的羅塞林(拉丁語:Roscellinus Compendiensis,Rucelinus ,法語:Roscelin de Compiègne…

Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya