The eight-hour day (also known as the 40-hour week movement or the short-time movement) was a social movement to regulate the length of a working day, preventing excesses and abuses of working time.
The eight-hour work day originated in 16th century Spain,[1] but the modern movement originated in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, where industrial production in large factories transformed working life. At that time, the working day could range from 10 to 16 hours, the work week was typically six days, and child labour was common.[2][3] In 1593, Spain became the first country to introduce the eight-hour work day by law for factory and fortification workers.[1] In contemporary era, it was established for non-agricultural workers by Uruguay in 1915,[4] and for all professions by Soviet Russia in 1917.[5]
History
Sixteenth century
In 1594, Philip II of Spain established an eight-hour work day for the construction workers in the colonies by a royal edict known as Ordenanzas de Felipe II, or Ordinances of Philip II. This established:
Título sexto. De las fábricas y fortificaciones.
Ley VI Que los obreros trabajen 8 horas al día repartidas como convenga.
Todos los obreros trabajaran ocho horas al día, cuatro á la mañana, y cuatro á la tarde en fortificaciones y fábricas, que se hicieren, repartidas á los tiempos más convenientes para librarse del rigor del sol, más o menos lo que á los ingenieros pareciere, de forma que no faltando un punto de lo posible, también se atienda à procurar su salud y conservación.
Sixth title. From factories and fortifications.
Law VI That the workers work eight hours a day distributed as appropriate.
All the workers will work eight hours a day, four in the morning, and four in the afternoon in fortifications and factories, which [The hours] are to be made, distributed at the most convenient times to get rid of the rigor of the sun, [and] more or less what seems to [be right to] the engineers, so that not missing a point of the possible [work], it is also attended to ensure their health and conservation.
— Recopilación de leyes de los reinos de las indias. Mandadas a Imprimir y Publicar por la majestad católica del rey Don Carlos II, nuestro señor. Libro Tercero.[6]: 37
An exception was applied to mine workers, whose work day was limited to seven hours. These working conditions were also applied to natives in the Spanish America, who also kept their own legislation organized in "Indian republics" where they elected their own mayors.[1]
Industrial revolution
In the early 19th century, Robert Owen raised the demand for a ten-hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his "socialist" enterprise at New Lanark. By 1817, he had formulated the goal of the eight-hour day and coined the slogan: "Eight hours' labour, Eight hours' recreation, Eight hours' rest". Women and children in England were granted the ten-hour day via the Factories Act 1847. French workers won the twelve-hour day after the February Revolution of 1848.[7]
A shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation for Chartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions. There were initial successes in achieving an eight-hour day in New Zealand and by the Australian labour movement for skilled workers in the 1840s and 1850s, though most employed people had to wait to the early and mid twentieth century for the condition to be widely achieved through the industrialised world through legislative action.
The International Workingmen's Association took up the demand for an eight-hour day at its Congress in Geneva in 1866, declaring "The legal limitation of the working day is a preliminary condition without which all further attempts at improvements and emancipation of the working class must prove abortive", and "The Congress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the working day." Karl Marx saw it as of vital importance to the workers' health, writing in Das Kapital (1867): "By extending the working day, therefore, capitalist production...not only produces a deterioration of human labour power by robbing it of its normal moral and physical conditions of development and activity, but also produces the premature exhaustion and death of this labour power itself."[8][9]
On 17 November 1915, Uruguay adopted an eight-hour working day, under the government of José Batlle y Ordóñez.[10] Nevertheless, the law was not effective on all type of works. On 3 April 1919, Spain introduced a universal law effective on all type of works, restricting the workday to a maximum of eight hours. The "Real decreto de 3 de abril de 1919" was signed by the prime minister, Álvaro de Figueroa, 1st Count of Romanones. The first international treaty to mention it was the Treaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteenth part establishing the International Labour Office, now the International Labour Organization.[11]
In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade unions began in earnest in Tehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliament Majles. The printers' union, established in 1906 by Mohammad Parvaneh as the first trade union, in the Koucheki print shop on Nasserieh Avenue in Tehran, reorganized their union under leadership of Russian-educated Seyed Mohammad Dehgan, a newspaper editor and an avowed Communist. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14-day strike and succeeded in reaching a collective agreement with employers to institute the eight-hours day, overtime pay, and medical care. The success of the printers' union encouraged other trades to organize. In 1919 the bakers and textile-shop clerks formed their own trade unions.
However the eight-hour day only became code by a limited governor's decree on 1923 by the governor of Kerman, Sistan and Balochistan, which controlled the working conditions and working hours for workers of carpet workshops in the province. In 1946, the council of ministers issued the first labor law for Iran, which recognized the eight-hour day.
Israel
This section needs expansion with: What happened in actual Israel?. You can help by adding to it. (January 2023)
The first company to introduce an eight-hour working day in Japan was the Kawasaki Dockyards in Kobe (now the Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation). An eight-hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919. After the company resisted the demands, a slowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of industrial action, company president Kōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight-hour day and wage increases on 27 September, which became effective from October. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi shipyards in 1921.[13]
The eight-hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of the Labor Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 (1) of the Act specifies a 40-hour week and paragraph (2) specifies an eight-hour day, excluding rest periods.[14]
Indonesia
In Indonesia, the first policy regarding working time regulated in Law No. 13 of 2003 about employment. In the law, it stated that a worker should work for 7 hours a day for 6 days a week or 8 hours a day for 5 days a week, excluding rest periods.[15]
China
In China, the first company to introduce the eight-hour working day was the Baocheng Cotton Mill in the port city of Tianjin (Chinese: 天津市寶成紗廠). Its manager Wu Jingyi (Chinese: 吳鏡儀) announced on 16 February 1930 through Ta Kung Pao that his factory is starting the new 8-hour work schedule immediately. The workers were elated. The union representative Liu Dongjiang (Chinese: 劉東江) stated "Under the spirit of cooperation, laborers and factory owners work together to advance the business, and in turn to contribute to our nation's development." A celebration was held on the same day in the courtyard of the factory.
The new schedule was called "3–8 schedule". The first shift worked 6 am – 2 pm; the 2nd shift 2 pm – 10 pm; the 3rd shift 10 pm – 6 am. Manager Wu Jingyi reasoned: "All of the factories now have a 12-hour work schedule. Workers are all exhausted and do not have time to take care of their families. In case of workers getting sick, the business also suffers. Therefore we decided to start trying the eight-hour working day".
The Beiyang government in Beijing had issued a decree "Provisional Regulations for factories" as early as in 1923, stating "Child-laborers shall not work more than 8 hours per day and shall have 3 days of rest per week; while adult laborers shall not work more than 10 hours per day and shall have 2 days of rest per week." After the successful Northern Expedition, the new Nanking government established the Bureau of Labor in 1928, followed by issuing the "Factory Law" in 1929 to set legal framework for the eight-hour working day. Yet, no business actually implemented this until 1930 by Baocheng Cotton Mill.[16][17]
Europe
Belgium
The eight-hour work day was introduced in Belgium on 9 September 1924.
Denmark
The eight-hour work day was introduced by law in Denmark on 17 May 1919, after a year-long campaign by workers.[18]
Czechoslovakia
As a result of large-scale demonstrations and strikes in the late 19th and early 20th century, the former Czechoslovakia, now Czechia and Slovakia, introduced the eight-hour workday on 19 December 1918.[19]
Finland
The eight-hour work day was established in Finland in 1917 as a result of the November general strike. According to the law accepted in late 1917, maximum work day was 8 hours and maximum work week 47 hours. Five-day work week was established gradually between 1966 and 1970.[20] A worker receives 150% payment from the first two extra hours, and 200% salary if the work day exceeds 10 hours.
The eight-hour work day was introduced by law in Italy on 17 April 1925.
Norway
The Factory Act of 1915 introduced a 10-hour workday.[25]
Poland
In Poland, the eight-hour day was introduced 23 November 1918 by decree of the cabinet of the Prime Minister Jędrzej Moraczewski.[26]
Portugal
In Portugal a vast wave of strikes occurred in 1919, supported by the National Workers' Union, the biggest labour union organisation at the time. The workers achieved important objectives, including the historic victory of an eight-hour day.
In the region of Alcoy, a workers strike in 1873 for the eight-hour day followed much agitation from the anarchists. In 1919 in Barcelona, after a 44-day general strike with over 100,000 participants had effectively crippled the Catalan economy, the Government settled the strike by granting all the striking workers demands that included an eight-hour day, union recognition, and the rehiring of fired workers.
Therefore, Spain became on 3 April 1919 the first country in the world to introduce a universal law effective on all type of works, restricting the workday to a maximum of eight hours: "Real decreto de 3 de abril de 1919", signed by the prime minister, Álvaro de Figueroa, 1st Count of Romanones.
Sweden
Average work hours per week for manufacturing employees in Sweden was 64 hours in 1885, 60 hours in 1905, and 55 hours in 1919.[29]
The eight-hour work day was introduced into law in Sweden on 4 August 1919, going into effect on 1 January 1920.[29] At the time, the work week was 48-hour since Saturday was a workday. The year before, 1918, the builders’ union had pushed through a 51-hour work week.[30]
The Social Democratic Party was the main driver behind the eight-hour workday.[29] Once full male suffrage was implemented in Sweden, the parliament passed legislation to introduce an eight-hour workday.[29]
United Kingdom
The Factory Act of 1833 limited the work day for children in factories. Those aged 9–13 could work only eight hours, 14–18 twelve hours. Children under 9 were required to attend school.
In 1884, Tom Mann joined the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) and published a pamphlet calling for the working day to be limited to eight hours. Mann formed an organisation, the Eight Hour League, which successfully pressured the Trades Union Congress to adopt the eight-hour day as a key goal. The British Fabian socialist economist Sidney Webb and the scholar Harold Cox co-wrote a book supporting the "Eight Hours Movement" in Britain.[31]
The first group of Workers to achieve the 8-hour day were the Beckton [East London] Gas workers after the strike under the leadership of Will Thorne, a member of the Social Democratic Federation. The strike action was initiated on 31 March 1889 after the introduction of compulsory 18-hour shifts, up from the previous 12 hours. Under the slogan of "shorten our hours to prolong our lives" the strike spread to other gas works. He petitioned the bosses and after a strike of some weeks, the bosses capitulated and three shifts of 8 hours replaced two shifts of 12 hours. Will Thorne founded the Gas Workers and General Labourers Union, which evolved into the modern GMB union.
Working hours in the UK are currently not limited by day, but by week, as first set by the Working Time Regulations 1998,[32] which introduced a limit of 40 hours per week for workers under 18, and 48 hours per week for over 18s. This was in line with the European Commission Working Time Directive of 1993. UK regulations now follow the EC Working Time Directive of 2003, but workers can voluntarily opt out[33] of the 48 hour limit. A general 8 hour limit to the working day has never been achieved in the UK. By the end of the 20th century, many people considered themselves to be "money-rich, time-poor".
North America
Canada
The labour movement in Canada tracked progress in the US and UK. In 1890, the Federation of Labour took up this issue, hoping to organise participation in May Day.[34]
In the 1960s, Canada adopted the 40-hour work week.[35]
Mexico
The Mexican Revolution of 1910—1920 produced the Constitution of 1917, which contained Article 123 that gave workers the right to organise labour unions and to strike. It also provided protection for women and children, the eight-hour day, and a living wage. See Mexican labor law.
In the United States, Philadelphia carpenters went on strike in 1791 for the ten-hour day. By the 1830s, this had become a general demand. In 1835, workers in Philadelphia organised the 1835 Philadelphia general strike, the first general strike in North America, led by Irish coal heavers. Their banners read, From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals.[36] Labor movement publications called for an eight-hour day as early as 1836. Boston ship carpenters, although not unionized, achieved an eight-hour day in 1842.
In 1864, the eight-hour day quickly became a central demand of the Chicago labor movement. The Illinois General Assembly passed a law in early 1867 granting an eight-hour day but it had so many loopholes that it was largely ineffective. A citywide strike that began on 1 May 1867 shut down the city's economy for a week before collapsing.
In August 1866, the National Labor Union at Baltimore passed a resolution that said, "The first and great necessity of the present to free labor of this country from capitalist slavery, is the passing of a law by which eight hours shall be the normal working day in all States of the American Union. We are resolved to put forth all our strength until this glorious result is achieved."
On 25 June 1868, Congress passed an eight-hour law for federal employees[37][38] which was also of limited effectiveness. It established an eight-hour workday for laborers and mechanics employed by the Federal Government. President Andrew Johnson had vetoed the act but it was passed over his veto. Johnson told a Workingmen's Party delegation that he couldn't directly commit himself to an eight-hour day, he nevertheless told the same delegation that he greatly favored the "shortest number of hours consistent with the interests of all." According to Richard F. Selcer, however, the intentions behind the law were "immediately frustrated" as wages were cut by 20%.[39]
On 19 May 1869, President Ulysses S. Grant issued a National Eight Hour Law Proclamation.[40]
During the 1870s, eight hours became a central demand, especially among labor organizers, with a network of Eight-Hour Leagues which held rallies and parades. A hundred thousand workers in New York City struck and won the eight-hour day in 1872, mostly for building trades workers. In Chicago, Albert Parsons became recording secretary of the Chicago Eight-Hour League in 1878, and was appointed a member of a national eight-hour committee in 1880.
At its convention in Chicago in 1884, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions resolved that "eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labor from and after May 1, 1886, and that we recommend to labour organizations throughout this jurisdiction that they so direct their laws as to conform to this resolution by the time named."
The leadership of the Knights of Labor, under Terence V. Powderly, rejected appeals to join the movement as a whole, but many local Knights assemblies joined the strike call including Chicago, Cincinnati and Milwaukee. On 1 May 1886 Albert Parsons, head of the Chicago Knights of Labor, led 80,000 people down Michigan Avenue in Chicago in what is regarded as the first modern May Day Parade, with the cry, "Eight-hour day with no cut in pay." In the next few days they were joined nationwide by 350,000 workers who went on strike at 1,200 factories, including 70,000 in Chicago, 45,000 in New York, 32,000 in Cincinnati, and additional thousands in other cities. Some workers gained shorter hours (eight or nine) with no reduction in pay; others accepted pay cuts with the reduction in hours.
On 3 May 1886 August Spies, editor of the Chicago Arbeiter-Zeitung(Workers Newspaper), spoke at a meeting of 6,000 workers, and afterwards many of them moved down the street to harass strikebreakers at the McCormick plant in Chicago. The police arrived, opened fire, and killed four people, wounding many more. At a subsequent rally on 4 May to protest this violence, a bomb exploded at the Haymarket Square. Hundreds of labor activists were rounded up and the prominent labor leaders arrested, tried, convicted, and executed giving the movement its first martyrs. On 26 June 1893 Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld set the remaining leader free, and granted full pardons to all those tried claiming they were innocent of the crime for which they had been tried and the hanged men had been the victims of "hysteria, packed juries and a biased judge".
The Building Trades Council (BTC) of San Francisco, under the leadership of P. H. McCarthy, won the eight-hour day in 1900 when the BTC unilaterally declared that its members would work only eight hours a day for US$3 a day (equivalent to $110 in 2022[41]). When the mill resisted, the BTC began organising mill workers; the employers responded by locking out 8,000 employees throughout the Bay Area. The BTC, in return, established a union planing mill from which construction employers could obtain supplies – or face boycotts and sympathy strikes if they did not. The mill owners went to arbitration, where the union won the eight-hour day, a closed shop for all skilled workers, and an arbitration panel to resolve future disputes. In return, the union agreed to refuse to work with material produced by non-union planing mills or those that paid less than the Bay Area employers.
On 5 January 1914 the Ford Motor Company took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day (equivalent to $150 in 2022[41]) and cutting shifts from nine hours to eight, moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford's productivity, and a significant increase in profit margin (from $30 million to $60 million in two years), most soon followed suit.[42][43][44]
In the summer of 1915, amid increased labor demand for World War I, a series of strikes demanding the eight-hour day began in Bridgeport, Connecticut. They were so successful that they spread throughout the Northeast.[45]
The United States Adamson Act in 1916 established an eight-hour day, with additional pay for overtime, for railroad workers. This was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act in Wilson v. New, 243U.S.332 (1917).
The eight-hour day might have been realized for many working people in the US in 1937, when what became the Fair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S. Code Chapter 8) was first proposed under the New Deal. As enacted, the act applied to industries whose combined employment represented about twenty percent of the US labor force. In those industries, it set the maximum workweek at 40 hours,[46] but provided that employees working beyond 40 hours a week would receive additional overtime bonus salaries.[47]
Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico in May 1899, while under US administration, General George W. Davis acceded to demands from Puerto Ricans and decreed freedom of assembly, speech, press, religion and an eight-hour day for government employees.
The Australian gold rushes attracted many skilled tradesmen to Australia. Some of them had been active in the Chartist movement in Britain, and subsequently became prominent in the campaign for better working conditions in the Australian colonies. Workers began winning an eight-hour day in various companies and industries in the 1850s.
The Stonemasons' Society in Sydney issued an ultimatum to employers on 18 August 1855 saying that after six months masons would work only an eight-hour day. Due to the rapid increase in population caused by the gold rushes, many buildings were being constructed, so skilled labour was scarce. Stonemasons working on the Holy Trinity Church and the Mariners' Church (an evangelical mission to seafarers), decided not to wait and pre-emptively went on strike, thus winning the eight-hour day. They celebrated with a victory dinner on 1 October 1855 which to this day is celebrated as a Labour Day holiday in the state of New South Wales. When the six-month ultimatum expired in February 1856, stonemasons generally agitated for a reduction of hours. Although opposed by employers, a two-week strike on the construction of Tooth's Brewery on Parramatta Road proved effective, and stonemasons won an eight-hour day by early March 1856, but with a reduction in wages to match.[48]
Agitation was also occurring in Melbourne where the craft unions were more militant. Stonemasons working on Melbourne University organised to down tools on 21 April 1856 and march to Parliament House with other members of the building trade. The movement in Melbourne was led by veteran Chartists, and masons James Stephens, T.W. Vine and James Galloway. The government agreed that workers employed on public works should enjoy an eight-hour day with no loss of pay and stonemasons celebrated with a holiday and procession on Monday 12 May 1856, when about 700 people marched with 19 trades involved. By 1858, the eight-hour day was firmly established in the building industry and by 1860, the eight-hour day was fairly widely worked in Victoria. From 1879, the eight-hour day was a public holiday in Victoria. The initial success in Melbourne led to the decision to organise a movement, to actively spread the eight-hour idea, and secure the condition generally.
In 1903, veteran socialist Tom Mann spoke to a crowd of a thousand people at the unveiling of the Eight Hour Day monument, funded by public subscription, on the south side of Parliament House on Spring St. It was relocated in 1923 to the corner of Victoria and Russell Streets outside Melbourne Trades Hall.
It took further campaigning and struggles by trade unions to extend the reduction in hours to all workers in Australia. In 1916 the Victoria Eight Hours Act was passed granting the eight-hour day to all workers in the state. The eight-hour day was not achieved nationally until the 1920s. The Commonwealth Arbitration Court gave approval of the 40-hour five-day working week nationally beginning on 1 January 1948. The achievement of the eight-hour day has been described by historian Rowan Cahill as "one of the great successes of the Australian working class during the nineteenth century, demonstrating to Australian workers that it was possible to successfully organise, mobilise, agitate, and exercise significant control over working conditions and quality of life. The Australian trade union movement grew out of eight-hour campaigning and the movement that developed to promote the principle."
The intertwined numbers 888 soon adorned the pediment of many union buildings around Australia. The Eight Hour March, which began on 21 April 1856, continued each year until 1951 in Melbourne, when the conservative Victorian Trades Hall Council decided to forgo the tradition for the Moomba festival on the Labour Day weekend. In capital cities and towns across Australia, Eight Hour day marches became a regular social event each year, with early marches often restricted to those workers who had won an eight-hour day.
New Zealand
Promoted by Samuel Duncan Parnell as early as 1840, when carpenter Samuel Parnell refused to work more than eight hours a day when erecting a store for merchant George Hunter. He successfully negotiated this working condition and campaigned for its extension in the infant Wellington community. A meeting of Wellington carpenters in October 1840 pledged "to maintain the eight-hour working day, and that anyone offending should be ducked into the harbour".
Parnell is reported to have said: "There are twenty-four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation and in which for men to do what little things they want for themselves." With tradesmen in short supply the employer was forced to accept Parnell's terms. Parnell later wrote, "the first strike for eight hours a day the world has ever seen, was settled on the spot".[49][50]
Emigrants to the new settlement of Dunedin, Otago, while on board ship decided on a reduction of working hours. When the resident agent of the New Zealand Company, Captain Cargill, attempted to enforce a ten-hour day in January 1849 in Dunedin, he was unable to overcome the resistance of trades people under the leadership of house painter and plumber, Samuel Shaw. Building trades in Auckland achieved the eight-hour day on 1 September 1857 after agitation led by Chartist painter, William Griffin. For many years the eight-hour day was confined to craft tradesmen and unionised workers. Labour Day, which commemorates the introduction of the eight-hour day, became a national public holiday in 1899.
South America
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2014)
A strike for the eight-hour day was held in May 1919 in Peru. In Uruguay, the eight-hour day was put in place in 1915 of several reforms implemented during the second term of president José Batlle y Ordóñez. It was introduced in Chile on 8 September 1924 at the demand of then-general Luis Altamirano as part of the Ruido de sables that culminated in the September Junta.
^Marx, Karl (1915). Capital: The process of capitalist production. Translated by Samuel Moore, Edward Bibbins Aveling, and Ernest Untermann. C. H. Kerr. p. 328.
^Herzl, Theodor (1988). "The Seven-Hour Day". The Jewish State. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 104–105. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
^"8時間労働発祥の地神戸" [Kobe: Birthplace of the Eight-Hour Day] (in Japanese). City of Kobe. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
^"Az ipari munkások munkabérének ideiglenes megállapítása. A Forradalmi Kormányzótanács LXIV. számú rendelete" [Temporary determination of the industrial workers' wages. Decree No. 64 of the Revolutionary Governing Council.]. A Forradalmi Kormányzótanács és a népbiztosságok rendeletei [Decrees of the Revolutionary Governing Council and the people's commissariats] (in Hungarian). 2. Szocialista-Kommunista Munkások Magyarországi Pártja: 32–33. 1919.
^Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 1, From Colonial Times to the Founding of The American Federation of Labor, International Publishers, 1975, pages 116–118
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artikel ini perlu dirapikan agar memenuhi standar Wikipedia. Tidak ada alasan yang diberikan. Silakan kembangkan artikel ini semampu Anda. Merapikan artikel dapat dilakukan dengan wikifikasi atau membagi artikel ke paragraf-paragraf. Jika sudah dirapikan, silakan hapus templat ini. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Gosicksampul depan Gosick volume 1 diterbitkan oleh Fujimi ShoboGOSICK -ゴシック-(Goshikku)GenreMisteri, Historical, Drama MangaPengarangKazuki S…
Ukrainian footballer (born 1996) This article is about the soccer player. For the ice dancer, see Viktor Kovalenko (ice dancer). For the sailor, see Victor Kovalenko. For the decathlete, see Victor Covalenco. In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming conventions, the patronymic is Viktorovych and the family name is Kovalenko. Viktor Kovalenko Kovalenko with Shakhtar Donetsk in 2015Personal informationFull name Viktor Viktorovych KovalenkoDate of birth (1996-02-14) 14 February 1996 (age…
For detailed rate information, see History of United States postage rates. Benjamin Franklin postage stamp of 1895 Postal service in the United States began with the delivery of stampless letters whose cost was borne by the receiving person, later encompassed pre-paid letters carried by private mail carriers and provisional post offices, and culminated in a system of universal prepayment that required all letters to bear nationally issued adhesive postage stamps.[1] In the earliest days,…
Telephone numbers in TuvaluLocationCountryTuvaluContinentOceaniaAccess codesCountry code+688International access00 Country Code: +688 International Call Prefix: 00 Landlines The local telephone numbers in Tuvalu are five digits long with no leading trunk zero to be omitted by international callers. The first two digits relate to the Tuvalu island in which is being called.[1] The remaining three digits are for the local number; however, when calling within the same island, all five digits…
Hon.Ashoka PriyanthaMPඅශෝක ප්රියන්ත அசோக பிரியந்தMember of Parliamentfor Puttalam DistrictIncumbentAssumed office 2015 Personal detailsNationalitySri LankanPolitical partySri Lanka Podujana Peramuna Ashoka Priyantha is a Sri Lankan politician and a member of the Parliament of Sri Lanka. He was elected from Puttalam District in 2015.He is a Member of the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna.[1][2] References ^ PM Ranil receives highest…
Berikut ini adalah daftar mercusuar di Jepang.[1][2][3] Daftar mercusuar Nama Gambar Dibangun Lokasi Karakteristik Nomor NGA Nomor angkatan laut Anorisaki Lighthouse 1948Agochō-Anori34°21′55″N 136°54′31″EFl W 15s112-6356M6042 Aoshima Lighthouse Prefektur Ehime33°44′9″N 132°28′38″E[4]112-9144M5644.4 Arasaki Lighthouse Prefektur Yamagata38°45′45″N 139°43′26″E Eboshijima Lighthouse 1 Agu 1875Itoshima33°41′23″N 1…
2 Tawarikh 26Kitab Tawarikh (Kitab 1 & 2 Tawarikh) lengkap pada Kodeks Leningrad, dibuat tahun 1008.KitabKitab 2 TawarikhKategoriKetuvimBagian Alkitab KristenPerjanjian LamaUrutan dalamKitab Kristen14← pasal 25 pasal 27 → 2 Tawarikh 26 (atau II Tawarikh 26, disingkat 2Taw 26) adalah pasal kedua puluh enam Kitab 2 Tawarikh dalam Alkitab Ibrani dan Perjanjian Lama di Alkitab Kristen. Dalam Alkitab Ibrani termasuk dalam bagian Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים, tulisan).[1] Pasa…
For the 1971 film with George C. Scott and Diana Rigg, see The Hospital. 2013 American filmThe HospitalTheatrical Movie PosterDirected byTommy GoldenDaniel Emery TaylorWritten byDaniel Emery TaylorJim O'RearProduced byJim O'RearStarringJim O'RearJason CroweRobin ShuteAlicia ClarkDaniel Emery TaylorCinematographyJared HicksEdited byTommy GoldenJim O'RearMusic byVirgil FranklinProductioncompanyDeviant PicturesDistributed byITN DistributionRelease date February 15, 2013 (2013-02-15) …
Latin phrase made famous by Shakespeare's Julius Caesar You Too Brutus redirects here. For the 2015 Malayalam language film, see You Too Brutus (film). For other uses, see Et tu Brute (disambiguation). The Shakespearean macaronic line Et Tu Brutè? in the First Folio from 1623 This 1888 painting by William Holmes Sullivan is named Et tu Brute and is located in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Photograph of the Mercury Theatre production of Caesar, the scene in which Julius Caesar (Joseph Holland, …
ДеревняСтарый Унтем 58°04′43″ с. ш. 53°45′35″ в. д.HGЯO Страна Россия Субъект Федерации Удмуртская Республика Муниципальный район Кезский История и география Первое упоминание 1662 Прежние названия Караул, Вуж-Сепыч Население Население 46 человек (2012) Национально…
Paul Vanden Boeynants, 1966 Paul Emile François Henri Vanden Boeynants anhörenⓘ/? (* 22. Mai 1919 in Forest/Vorst, Belgien; † 9. Januar 2001 in Brüssel) war ein belgischer Politiker. Er war für zwei kurze Amtszeiten Premierminister Belgiens. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 2 Betrug 3 Entführung 4 Auszeichnungen 5 Literatur 6 Weblinks 7 Einzelnachweise Leben Vanden Boeynants (von Journalisten immer nur VDB genannt) wurde am 22. Mai 1919 in Brüssel (Stadtteil Forest), in Belgien geboren. Er a…
Para otros usos de este término, véase Crazy Stupid Love. Crazy, Stupid, Love Los directores de la película, Requa y Ficarra, en la premiere australiana del filmTítulo Crazy, Stupid, Love (España)Loco y estúpido amor (Hispanoamérica)Ficha técnicaDirección Glenn Ficarra y John RequaProducción Steve CarellDenise Di NoviGuion Dan FogelmanMúsica Christophe BeckNick UrataFotografía Andrew DunnMontaje Lee HaxallProtagonistas Steve CarellRyan GoslingJulianne MooreEmma StoneJonah BoboJohn Ca…
Political party in European Union Conservative Group Swedish: Konservativa gruppenFinnish: Konservatiivinen ryhmäDanish: Den Konservative GruppeNorwegian: Den konservative gruppenIcelandic: Flokkahópur hægrimannaChairman Hans WallmarkVice Chairman Michael TetzschnerHeadquartersChristiansborg DK-1240 København KYouth wingNordic Young Conservative UnionIdeologyConservatismLiberal conservatismEconomic liberalismPolitical positionCentre-rightEuropean affiliationEuropean People's PartyEu…
American con artist (1810–1906) William Rockefeller Sr.BornWilliam Avery Rockefeller(1810-11-13)November 13, 1810Ancram, New York, U.S.DiedMay 11, 1906(1906-05-11) (aged 95)Freeport, Illinois, U.S.Burial placeOakland Cemetery (Buried as William Levingston)Other namesDr. William LevingstonOccupation(s)Businessman, Lumberman, Herbalist, Snake Oil SalesmanSpouse(s)Eliza Davison(m. 1837–1889; her death, separated c. 1855)Margaret Allen(m. 1856–1906; his death)PartnerNancy BrownChildr…
Amusement park ride This article is about the amusement park ride. For other uses, see Tilt-A-Whirl (disambiguation). A Tilt-A-Whirl Tilt-A-Whirl is a flat ride similar to the Waltzer in Europe, designed for commercial use at amusement parks, fairs, and carnivals, in which it is commonly found.[1] The rides are manufactured by Larson International of Plainview, Texas. Description The ride consists of seven freely-spinning cars that hold three or four riders each, which are attached at fi…
Mycetophila uliginosa Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Arthropoda Kelas: Insecta Ordo: Diptera Famili: Mycetophilidae Genus: Mycetophila Spesies: Mycetophila uliginosa Mycetophila uliginosa adalah spesies lalat yang berasal dari genus Mycetophila dan famili Mycetophilidae. Lalat ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Diptera, kelas Insecta, filum Arthropoda, dan kingdom Animalia. Lalat ini biasanya dapat ditemui di tempat lembab. Referensi Bisby F.A., Roskov Y.R., Orrell T.M., Nicolson …
1968 single by Orietta Berti Non illuderti maiSingle by Orietta Bertifrom the album Dolcemente B-sideAmore per la vitaReleased8 April 1968 (1968-04-08)GenrePopLength2:27LabelPolydorSongwriter(s) Daniele Pace Mario Panzeri Lorenzo Pilat Orietta Berti singles chronology Tu che non sorridi mai (1968) Non illuderti mai (1968) Se m'innamoro di un ragazzo come te (1968) Non illuderti mai (Never Deceive Yourself) is a song by Italian singer Orietta Berti, released as a single in April 19…
النموذج الأولي للمفاعل السريع مفاعل سريع متكامل هو تصميم لمفاعل نووي يستخدم نيوترونات سريعة ولا يوجد وسيط نيوتروني.[1] حيث يولد المفاعل السريع المتكامل مزيد من الوقود ويتميز بدورة وقود نووي تستخدم إعادة المعالجة عن طريق التصفية الإلكترونية في موقع المفاعل.[2] نبذة ب…
Cet article est une ébauche concernant une personnalité française. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. Consultez la liste des tâches à accomplir en page de discussion. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Beurdeley. Louis-Auguste-Alfred BeurdeleyPortrait de Beurdeley par Paul Baudry.BiographieNaissance 18 mai 1808Ancien 1er arrondissement de ParisDécès 29 novembre 1882 (à 74 ans)9e arrondi…