Commander-in-Chief of the Forces

Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
Longest serving FM Prince George, Duke of Cambridge 5 July 1856 – 1 November 1895
English Army British Army War Office
Type	Senior-most officer
Abbreviation	C-in-C
Reports to	Secretary of State for War
Appointer	The Monarch
Term length	No fixed term
Formation	1645 January 1793
First holder	Captain General Sir Thomas Fairfax as General-in-Chief FM Jeffery Amherst, 1st Lord Amherst as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
Final holder	FM Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts
Abolished	12 February 1904
Succession	Chief of the General Staff

The Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, later Commander-in-Chief, British Army, or just the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C), was (intermittently) the professional head of the English Army from 1660 to 1707 (the English Army, founded in 1645, was succeeded in 1707 by the new British Army, incorporating existing Scottish regiments) and of the British Army from 1707 until 1904. In 1904 the office was replaced with the creation of the Army Council and the appointment of Chief of the General Staff.

Republican origins

In earlier times, supreme command of the Army had been exercised by the monarch in person. In 1645, after the outbreak of the English Civil War, Parliament appointed Thomas Fairfax "Captain General and Commander-in-Chief of all the armies and forces raised and to be raised within the Commonwealth of England".^[1] Thomas Fairfax was the senior-most military officer, having no superior, and held great personal control over the army and its officers. Lord Fairfax was styled "Lord General". None of his successors would use this title. In 1650, Fairfax resigned his post, shortly before the Scottish campaign of the War.^[2]

Oliver Cromwell, Fairfax's Lieutenant-General, succeeded him as Commander-in-chief of the Forces.^[2] Under Cromwell, the Commander-in-Chief was de facto head of state, especially after the dismissal of the Long Parliament. Cromwell held the office until 1653, when he was elected Lord Protector.^[3]

On 21 February 1660, the reconstituted Long Parliament resolved "that General George Monck be constituted and appointed Captain-General and Commander in Chief, under Parliament, of all the Land-Forces of England, Scotland and Ireland".^[4]

Post-Restoration history

After Monck's death, the post, which gave the holder significant military power, was abolished until James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth successfully petitioned Charles II and was granted it in 1674.^[5] After Monmouth's execution the post was again not filled until 1690, when it was bestowed upon John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, during the King's absence in Ireland.^[6] It was likewise conferred on Meinhardt Schomberg, Duke of Schomberg the following year during the King's absence in Flanders, Marlborough having fallen from favour.^[7]

After 1660 it became rare for British sovereigns to lead their troops in battle (with the notable exception of King William III); instead, it became normative for command (especially in time of war) to be delegated to an individual, who usually held the appointment of Captain General or Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.^[8] (In early years these two titles were often used interchangeably, and/or the appointments were held concurrently). The office was not always filled: for example, James II and William III both functioned themselves as Commander-in-Chief; at other times the appointment simply lapsed (especially if there was no perceived immediate military threat).^[8]

With the appointment of General Lord Jeffrey Amherst in 1793, the Commander-in-Chief was given authority over matters of discipline, over supplies, training and promotions in the British Army. The establishment of a military staff took place under the oversight of his successor, Frederick, Duke of York.^[9]

In most instances, Commanders-in-Chief of the Forces were not Cabinet members (only Conway and Wellington had a seat in Cabinet by virtue of holding this office; Ligonier and Granby were also in Cabinet during their time in office, but in both cases sat as Master-General of the Ordnance).^[8] Instead, the British Army was represented variously and tenuously in government by the Paymaster of the Forces (Paymaster General from 1836), the Master-General of the Ordnance (who did not invariably have a seat in Cabinet), the Secretary at War (who was not usually a member of the Cabinet) and (from 1794) the Secretary of State for War.^[8]

With the demise of the Board of Ordnance in the wake of the Crimean War the Commander-in-Chief assumed command of the Ordnance troops: the Royal Regiment of Artillery and the Corps of Royal Engineers. The momentum of reform at this time, however, was toward increasing the authority of the Secretary of State for War. From the passing of the War Office Act 1870, as part of the Cardwell Reforms, the Commander-in-Chief was made clearly subordinate to the Secretary of State, to serve as the latter's principal military adviser, and was made to move out of his traditional office above the arch at Horse Guards and into the War Office. Nevertheless, in 1888 he is still described as having responsibility for all personnel and matériel issues for the army and auxiliary forces, and in 1895 he took on the responsibilities of chief of staff.^[9]

The appointment of Commander-in-Chief remained in the personal gift of the monarch, and its independence was guarded by Queen Victoria (among others) as emblematic of the notion that command of the Army was vested in the Crown; during her reign, however, the office was (in 1870) made much more clearly subordinate to the Secretary of State for War (and to Parliament).^[10]

Following the recommendations of the Esher Report, the office was replaced in 1904 with the creation of the Army Council and the appointment of Chief of the General Staff. The title reverted to the monarch, who remains (titular) "Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces".^[11]

Professional heads of the English/British Armed Forces

• v
• t
• e

	Royal Navy	British Army	Royal Air Force	Combined
1645	N/A	Commander-in-Chief of the Forces (1645/60–1904, intermittently)	N/A. The RAF was formed in 1918
1689	Senior Naval Lord (1689–1771)
1771	First Naval Lord (1771–1904)
1904	First Sea Lord (1904–1917)	Chief of the General Staff (1904–1909)		Inter-service co-ordination was carried out from 1904 by the Committee of Imperial Defence under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister
1909		Chief of the Imperial General Staff (1909–1964)
1917	First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–present)
1918			Chief of the Air Staff (1918–present)
1923				Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (1923–1959, held by one of the service heads until 1956)
1959				Chief of the Defence Staff (1959–present)
1964		Chief of the General Staff (1964–present)

The Forces

The British military (ie., that part of the armed forces committed to land warfare, and not to be confused with the naval forces) was originally made up of several forces, including the British Army, the others being: the Ordnance Military Corps of the Board of Ordnance (including the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, and Royal Sappers and Miners), being a professional, or regular force like the army);^{[12][13][14][15]} the Militia Force (or Constitutional Force),^{[16][17][18][19]} being a conscripted reserve infantry force able to be called out in times of emergency for home defence; the Yeomanry,^[20] being a similar mounted force; and the Volunteer Corps, made up of voluntary reserve units that normally only existed during wartime.^[21][22] The Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855 and its military corps, commissariat stores, transport, barracks and other departments were absorbed into the British Army, which was also called Regular Force or Regular Army). The Reserve Forces were also known as the Auxiliary Forces and the Local Forces (as their personnel could not originally be compelled to serve outside their local areas), and were re-organised in the 1850s with the Militia becoming voluntary (but with recruits engaging for a period of service that they were obliged to complete),^[23] and the Volunteer Force permanently established. These forces were increasingly integrated with the British Army during the final decades of the Nineteenth Century and the first decades of the Twentieth Century. The Yeomanry and Volunteer Force became the Territorial Force in 1908, and the Militia became the Special Reserve (and ceased to exist after the First World War).^{[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]}

Appointees

The following table lists all those who have held the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure:
† denotes people who died in office.

No.	Portrait	Name	Took office	Left office	Time in office	Ref.
Parliamentary General-in-Chief Command
1		Fairfax, ThomasCaptain General Sir Thomas Fairfax (1612–1671)	1645	1650	4–5 years	[1]
2		Cromwell, OliverCaptain General Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)	1650	1653	2–3 years	[2]
General-in-Chief Command
1		Monck, GeorgeCaptain General George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–1670)	3 August 1660	3 January 1670 †	9 years, 153 days	[36]
Position vacant (3 January 1670 – 30 March 1674)
2		Scott, JamesGeneral James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth (1649–1685)	30 March 1674	1 December 1679	5 years, 246 days	[37]
Position vacant (1 December 1679 – 3 June 1690)
3		Churchill, JohnGeneral John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722)	3 June 1690	30 April 1691	331 days	[6]
4		Schomberg, MeinhardtGeneral Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg (1641–1719)	30 April 1691	1691	0 years	[7]
Position vacant (1691 – 24 April 1702)
(3)		Churchill, JohnGeneral John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722)	24 April 1702	1711	8–9 years	[6][38]
5		Butler, JamesGeneral James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde (1665–1745)	1 January 1711	1714	2–3 years	[39]
(3)		Churchill, JohnGeneral John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722)	1714	1722	7–8 years	[8]
Position vacant (1714 – 1 January 1744)
6		Dalrymple, JohnField Marshal John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair (1673–1747)	1 January 1744	1744	0 years	[40]
7		Wade, GeorgeField Marshal George Wade (1673–1748)	1744	1745	0–1 years	[41]
Position vacant (1745 – 1745)
8		Duke of Cumberland, Prince WilliamGeneral Prince William, Duke of Cumberland (1721–1765)	1745	24 October 1757	11–12 years	[42]
9		Ligonier, JohnField Marshal John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier (1680–1770)	24 October 1757	1766	8–9 years	[43][44]
10		Manners, JohnLieutenant-General John Manners, Marquess of Granby (1721–1770)	13 August 1766	17 January 1770	3 years, 157 days	[45]
Position vacant (17 January 1770 – 19 March 1778)
11		Amherst, JeffreyField Marshal Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst (1717–1797)	19 March 1778	29 March 1782	4 years, 10 days	[46]
12		Conway, HenryField Marshal Henry Seymour Conway (1721–1795)	29 March 1782	21 January 1793	10 years, 298 days	[47]
Commander-in-Chief
1		Amherst, JeffreyField Marshal Jeffery Amherst, 1st Lord Amherst (1717–1797)	January 1793	February 1795	2 years, 31 days	[48]
2		Duke of York, Prince FrederickField Marshal Prince Frederick, Duke of York (1763–1827)	3 April 1795	25 March 1809	13 years, 356 days	[49]
3		Dundas, DavidGeneral Sir David Dundas (1735–1820)	18 March 1809	26 May 1811	2 years, 69 days	[50]
(2)		Duke of York, Prince FrederickField Marshal Prince Frederick, Duke of York (1763–1827)	29 May 1811	5 January 1827 †	15 years, 221 days	[51]
4		Wellesley, ArthurField Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852)	22 January 1827	22 January 1828	1 year	[52]
5		Hill, RowlandGeneral Rowland Hill, 1st Lord Hill (1772–1842)	22 January 1828	15 August 1842	14 years, 205 days	[53]
(4)		Wellesley, ArthurField Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852)	15 August 1842	14 September 1852 †	10 years, 30 days	[54]
6		Hardinge, HenryField Marshal Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge (1785–1856)	28 September 1852	5 July 1856	3 years, 281 days	[55]
7		Duke of Cambridge, Prince GeorgeField Marshal Prince George, Duke of Cambridge (1819–1904)	5 July 1856	1 November 1895	39 years, 119 days	[56]
8		Wolseley, GarnetField Marshal Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley (1833–1913)	1 November 1895	3 January 1901	5 years, 63 days	[57]
9		Roberts, FrederickField Marshal Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts (1832–1914)	3 January 1901	12 February 1904	3 years, 40 days	[58]

References

1. Lingard, John (1829). A History of England from the First Invasion by the Romans. Vol. XI. Baldwin and Cradock. p. 447.
2.  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fairfax of Cameron, Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Baron". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–132.
3. Gaunt 1996, p. 155
4. Journals of the House of Commons, volume eight. London: HM Stationery Office. 1813. p. 847.
5. Roberts, George (1844). The Life, Progresses and Rebellion of James, Duke of Monmouth. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans. p. 36.
6. "John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5401. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
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8. Roper, Michael (1998). The Records of the War Office and Related Departments, 1660-1964. Kew, Surrey: Public Record Office.
9. Raugh, Harold E. (2004). The Victorians at War, 1815-1914: an Encyclopaedia of British Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO Inc.
10. Forbes, Major-General A. (1929). A History of the Army Ordnance Service. Volume II: Modern History. London: The Medici Society. pp. 20–21.
11. Hughes, Matthew; Seligmann, Matthew (1990). Leadership in Conflict: 1914-1918. Barnsley, S. Yorks.: Leo Cooper. p. 249.
12. Unit History: Department of the Master-General of the Ordnance. Forces War Records
13. Board of Ordnance. Naval History Archive
14. THE HONORABLE THE BOARD OF ORDNANCE. 1299—1855, by J. H. Leslie. Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Vol. 4, No. 17 (JULY–SEPTEMBER, 1925). Society for Army Historical Research
15. Corps of Royal Engineers. National Army Museum
16. MILITIA BILL. House of Commons Debate 23 April 1852. Volume 120 cc1035-109. British Parliament website
17. THE MILITIA. House of Commons Debate 4 May 1855. Volume 138 cc116-32. British Parliament website
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19. ARMY—AUXILIARY FORCES—THE MILITIA.—OBSERVATIONS. House of Commons Debate 13 June 1878. Volume 240 cc1418-33. British Parliament website
20. AN IMPERIAL YEOMANRY RESERVE. House of Lords Debate 26 May 1903. Vol 122 cc1767-71. British Parliament website
21. A LIST OF THE OFFICERS of the ARMY, (WITH AN ALPHABETICAL INDEX;) OF THE OFFICERS of the ROYAL ARTILLERY, THE ENGINEERS, the MARINE FORCES, AND OF THE OFFICERS on HALF-PAY; AND A SUCCESSION of COLONELS. THE THIRTY-SECOND EDITION. War-Office. 31 March, 1784
22. THE NEW ANNUAL ARMY LIST, MILITIA LIST, 1854: (BEING THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL VOLUME), CONTAINING THE DATES OF COMMISSIONS, AND A STATEMENT OF THE WAR SERVICES AND WOUNDS OF NEARLY EVERY OFFICER IN THE ARMY, ORDNANCE, AND MARINES. CORRECTED TO 30TH DECEMBER, 1853. WITH AN INDEX. MAJOR H. G. HART, 49TH REGT. JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON 1854
23. The Militia Artillery 1852-1909, by Norman EH Litchfield. The Sherwood Press (Nottingham) Ltd. 1987
24. Beckett, Ian Frederick William (2008). Territorials: A Century of Service. Plymouth: DRA Publishing. pp. 206–216. ISBN 9780955781315.
25. THE ARMY ESTIMATES. House of Commons Debate 15 March 1895. Vol 31 cc1157-209. British Parliament website
26. HART'S ANNUAL ARMY LIST, SPECIAL RESERVE LIST, AND TERRITORIAL FORCE LIST, FOR 1911: (BEING THE SEVENTY-SECOND ANNUAL VOLUME,) CONTAINING DATES OF COMMISSIONS, AND A SUMMARY OF THE WAR SERVICES OF NEARLY EVERY OFFICER IN THE ARMY, SUPPLY &c. DEPARTMENTS, MARINES, AND INDIAN ARMY, AND INDIAN LOCAL FORCES. WITH AN INDEX. BY THE LATE LIEUTENANT GENERAL H. G. HART. JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON. 1911
27. THE TERRITORIAL FORCES ACT—THE MILITIA. House of Lords Debate 18 February 1908. Volume 184 cc578-605. British Parliament website
28. BRITISH ARMY.—HOME AND COLONIAL MILITARY FORCES. House of Commons Debate 9 April 1913. Volume 51 cc1196-8W. British Parliament website
29. The British Guiana Volunteer Force. Stabroek News. 1 October, 2008
30. "Batteries, Companies, Regiments and Corps (Land): Defending the colony, Colonial Forces Study Group (Queensland) Inc". Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
31. History of The Coast Artillery in the British Army, by Colonel KW Maurice-Jones, DSO, RA. Royal Artillery Institution. 1959
32. The Militia Artillery 1852-1909, by Norman EH Litchfield. The Sherwood Press (Nottingham) Ltd. 1987
33. "Bermuda in 1914 The National Archives, Kew". Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
34. The Quarterly Army List Part I, January 1945. Order of Precedence of the British Army. Page xiii. His Majesty's Stationery Office
35. ARMY ESTIMATES, 1899–1900. House of Commons Debate 17 March 1899. Vol 68 cc1161-287 British Parliament website
36. Hutton, Ronald (2004). "George Monk". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/18939. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
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38. "John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
39. "No. 4948". The London Gazette. 3 January 1711. p. 1.
40. "John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7053. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
41. Heathcote 1999, p. 286
42. Speck, W. A. (2004). "Prince William, Duke of Cumberland". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/29455. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
43. Heathcote 1999, p. 203
44. Sedgwick, Romney R. (1970). "LIGONIER, John Louis (1680-1770), of Cobham Place, Surr.". In Sedgwick, Romney (ed.). The House of Commons 1715–1754. The History of Parliament Trust. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
45. Massie, Alastair W. (2004). "John Manners, Marquess of Granby". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/17958. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
46. Heathcote 1999, p. 25
47. Heathcote 1999, p. 94
48. "Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/443. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
49. Glover 1963, p. 128
50. "Sir David Dundas". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8247. Retrieved 21 January 2014. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
51. "No. 16487". The London Gazette. 21 May 1811. p. 940.
52. "No. 18327". The London Gazette. 23 January 1827. p. 153.
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54. "No. 20130". The London Gazette. 16 August 1842. p. 2217.
55. "No. 21362". The London Gazette. 28 September 1852. p. 2573.
56. Heathcote 1999, p. 142
57. "No. 26676". The London Gazette. 1 November 1895. p. 5923.
58. "No. 27263". The London Gazette. 4 January 1901. p. 83.

Sources

• Gaunt, Peter (1996), Oliver Cromwell, Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-18356-6
• Glover, Richard (1963). Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army 1795–1809. Cambridge University Press.
• Heathcote, Tony (1999). The British Field Marshals 1736–1997. Pen & Sword Books Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-696-5.

External links

• Regiments.org
• Everything