Co-op City was formerly marshland before being occupied by an amusement park called Freedomland U.S.A. from 1960 to 1964. Construction began in 1966 and the first residents moved in two years later, though the project was not completed until 1973. The construction of the community was sponsored by the United Housing Foundation and financed with a mortgage loan from New York State Housing Finance Agency.
Co-op City's 15,372 residential units are composed of 35 high-rise buildings and seven clusters of townhouses, making it the largest residential development in the United States.[4] It sits on 320 acres (1.3 km2), though only 20% of the land was developed, leaving many green spaces. The apartment buildings range from 24 to 33 floors. There are four types of buildings: 10 Triple Core (26 stories high with 500 apartment units per building), 10 chevron (24 stories, 414 units), 15 tower (33 stories, 384 units), and 236 town houses. The townhouses are three stories high and have a separate garden apartment and upper duplex apartment.[5]
This "city within a city" also has eight parking garages, three shopping centers, a 25-acre (0.10 km2) educational park, including a high school, two middle schools, and three grade schools. More than 40 offices are rented by doctors, lawyers, and other professionals, and there are 15 houses of worship. Spread throughout the community are six nursery schools and day care centers, four basketball courts, and five baseball diamonds. The adjacent Bay Plaza Shopping Center has a 13-screen multiplex movie theater, department stores, and a supermarket.
The development was built on landfill, and the original marshland still surrounds it. The building foundations extend down to bedrock through 50,000 pilings,[6] but the land surrounding Co-op's structures settles and sinks a fraction of an inch each year, creating cracks in sidewalks and entrances to buildings.[7]
Street names
Most streets in the community are named after notable historical personalities. Generally, streets in section one begin with the letter "D", section two begins with the letter "C", section three with the letter "A", section four with the letter "B" and section five with the letter "E".[8]
Adler Place – named for archaeologist Cyrus Adler[8]: 16
Bellamy Loop – named for writer Edward Bellamy, it was located on the eastern edge of Pinckney's Meadow and located on the path of Rattlesnake Brook before becoming part of Freedomland[8]: 31
Donizetti Place – named for composer Gaetano Donizetti, it was a mill lane for 250 years before Co-op City was built[8]: 72
Dreiser Loop – named for journalist Theodore Dreiser, it was part of the parking lot for Freedomland and located on the path of Rattlesnake Brook[8]: 74
Earhart Lane – named for aviator Amelia Earhart, it was formerly occupied by barges and frame houses[8]: 76
Einstein Loop – named for physicist Albert Einstein, it is the site of Givans and Barrow Creeks, on what was formerly the 14-acre Rose Island[8]: 97
Elgar Place – named for composer Edward Elgar, it is the site of Givans Creek[8]: 98
Erdman Place – named for poet Loula Grace Erdman, it is the site of Givans Creek[8]: 100
Erskine Place – named for educator, author, pianist, and composer John Erskine[8]: 100
In the 1920s the land that would become Co-op City had been set aside, intended for a future municipal airport.[10]
The land north of the Hutchinson River Parkway was a large swampy area known by residents as "the dump", and most of the land on the north side of the Hutchinson River was flat land used for recreation.
The land to the south of the Hutchinson River (now Section 5 of Co-op City) was swampland. A tidal estuary reached from the Hutchinson River at the New Haven Railroad along a route just north of Hunter and Boller Avenue to pass under the Hutchinson River Parkway. The estuary was the site of boat yards and canoe rental sites during the 1950s.
The northern portion of the site became the home of a 205-acre theme park named Freedomland U.S.A. Freedomland operated from June 19, 1960[11] until September 1964, when it closed after going bankrupt.[12][13] A small portion of the former park site at the northeast corner of Bartow and Baychester Avenues in Co-op City remains zoned as a C7 district,[14] reserved "for large open amusement parks".[15] The zoning district is a holdover from Freedomland's operation.[16][17]
Development
In February 1965, plans were announced for the residential Co-op City development, the world's largest housing cooperative, on the site.[18] The plans for Co-op City were announced in May 1965, with no provisions for an amusement park.[19] Construction on Co-op City began in May 1966.[20] While much of the Freedomland site and some of the surrounding land was infilled, several existing houses were retained along Givans Creek (near Section 5 of Co-op City) because of opposition from residents there. These houses received sewage and other utilities, though these projects were delayed. There was a controversy when Co-op City builders filled the land to grade, because the existing houses were located as much as 12 feet (3.7 m) below grade, and filling for the main development caused storm runoff to flood the existing houses.[21]
Residents began moving in during December 1968,[22] and construction was completed in 1973. The project was sponsored and built by the United Housing Foundation, an organization established in 1951 by Abraham Kazan and the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, and was designed by cooperative architect Herman J. Jessor. The name of the complex's corporation itself was later changed to RiverBay at Co-op City.
Financing
Co-op City in 1973; the lot in the foreground is a dump
The construction of the community was financed with a mortgage loan from New York State Housing Finance Agency (HFA).[10] The complex defaulted on the loan in 1975 and has had ongoing agreements to pay back HFA.
Mismanagement, shoddy construction, and corruption led to the community's defaulting on its loan in 1975. The original Kazan board resigned, and the state took over control. Cooperators, faced with a 25-percent increase in their monthly maintenance fees, organized residents to refuse to pay their monthly maintenance fees. New York State threatened to foreclose on the property and evict the residents, which would mean the loss of their equity. However, cooperators stayed united and held out for 13 months (the longest and largest strike of its kind in United States history) before a compromise was finally reached, with mediation from then-Bronx Borough PresidentRobert Abrams and then-New York Secretary of StateMario Cuomo. Cooperators would remit $20 million in back payments of maintenance fees, but they would get to take over management of the complex and set their own fees.[23]
The shares of stock that prospective purchasers bought to enable them to occupy Co-op City apartments became the subject of protracted litigation, culminating in a United States Supreme Court decision United Housing Foundation, Inc. v. Forman, 421 U.S. 837 (1975).[24] 57 residents sued because they had been charged for costs that were not described in a 1965 Information Bulletin seeking to attract residents for apartments in Co-op City. The Supreme Court held that federal courts have no jurisdiction of shares of stock that allow the purchaser to live in an apartment in Co-op City because they are not federally-regulated shares of commercial stock.[25]
In 2004, Co-op City was financially unable to continue payments to HFA due to the huge costs of emergency repairs. New York Community Bank helped RiverBay satisfy its $57 million mortgage obligation, except for $95 million in arrears, by refinancing the loan later that same year. This led to the agreement that Co-op City would remain in the Mitchell-Lama Housing Program for at least seven more years as a concession on the arrears and that any rehabilitation that Co-op City took on to improve the original poor construction (which happened under New York State's watch) would earn credit toward eliminating the debt. By 2008, RiverBay had submitted enough proof of construction repairs to pay off the balance of arrears to New York State.
Renovations
View from corner of Asch Loop/Co-op City Boulevard in 2006
Within the first decade of the 2000s, the aging development began undergoing a complex-wide $240 million renovation, replacing piping and garbage compactors, rehabilitating garages and roofs, upgrading the power plant, making facade and terrace repairs, switching to energy-efficient lighting and water-conserving technologies, replacing all 130,000 windows and 4,000 terrace doors (costing $57.9 million in material and labor) and all 179 elevators. The word "renaissance" is being used to describe this period in Co-op City history. Many of these efforts are also helping in the "greening" of the complex: the power-plant will be less polluting, the buildings will be more efficient and recycling efforts will become more extensive. The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) awarded its largest ever grant—$5.2 million—to the community under its NY Energy $mart Assisted Multifamily Program.
In 2003, after a partial collapse in one garage, inspectors found 5 of the 8 garages to be unsafe and ordered them closed for extensive repairs. The other 3 garages were able to remain partially open during repairs. To deal with the parking crisis, New York City allowed angled parking in the community, the large greenways in the complex were paved over to make outdoor parking lots and agreements were made with nearby shopping centers to use their extra parking spaces. All garages were re-opened by January 2008, and work began to restore the greenways that had been paved.
Financial responsibility for these upgrades was the subject of a protracted dispute between RiverBay and the State of New York.[26] Co-op City was developed under New York's Mitchell-Lama Program, which subsidizes affordable housing. RiverBay charged that the state should help with the costs because of severe infrastructure failures stemming from the development's original shoddy construction, which occurred under the supervision of the state. The state countered that RiverBay was responsible for the costs because of its lack of maintenance over the years. In the end, a compromise had the state supplying money and RiverBay refinancing the mortgage, borrowing $480 million from New York Community Bank in 2004, to cover the rest of the capital costs.[27]
In 2007, the power plant was in the process of upgrading from solely managing the electricity brought in from Con Edison to a 40-megawatt tri-generation facility with the ability to use oil, gas or steam (depending on market conditions) to power turbines to produce its own energy. The final cost of this energy independence could be as much as $90 million, but it is hoped to pay for itself with the savings earned—with conservative estimates at $18 million annually—within several years. Also, whatever excess power generated after satisfying the community's needs will be sold back to the electrical grid, adding another source of income for RiverBay.
In September 2007, a report by the New York Inspector General, Kristine Hamann, charged that the Division of Housing and Community Renewal (DHCR), which is responsible for overseeing Mitchell-Lama developments, was negligent in its duties to supervise the contracting, financial reporting, budgeting and the enforcement of regulations in Co-op City (and other M-L participants) during the period of January 2003 to October 2006. The report also chided Marion Scott management for trying to influence the RiverBay Board by financing election candidates and providing jobs and sports tickets to Board members and their family/friends—all violations of DHCR and/or RiverBay regulations. The DHCR was instructed to overhaul its system of oversight to better protect the residents and taxpayer money.[28]
In October 2007, a former board president, Iris Herskowitz Baez, and a former painting contractor, Nickhoulas Vitale, pleaded guilty to involvement in a kickback scheme. While on the RiverBay Board, Baez steered $3.5 million in subsidized painting contracts for needed work in Co-op City apartments, to Vitale's company, Stadium Interior Painting, in exchange for $100,000 in taxpayer money.[29] Herskowitz Baez was sentenced to 6 months in jail and 12 months' probation and given a $10,000 fine in March 2008.[30]
2010s to present
During January 2015, an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease sickened 8 people near Co-op City's cooling towers. Twelve people were diagnosed with Legionnaires' disease between December 2014 and the end of the outbreak in January 2015.[31] Another outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in 2018 sickened three people, one of whom died.[32][33][34]
As a result of the continued presence of the amusement park zoning lot at Bartow and Baychester Avenues, there were no restrictions on the heights of signs on that lot. In late 2017, the site's owner began erecting tall LED billboards on the lot, a move opposed by Co-op City residents since one of the billboards faced Co-op City, keeping residents awake at night.[35] The following year, residents proposed changing the lot's zoning to a standard commercial use.[36][17] A tall wind turbine was erected on the lot in December 2019.[37] The turbine toppled later that month, knocking down the billboard, but causing no injuries.[37][38]
Management
Co-op City in 2005
RiverBay Corporation is the corporation that operates the community and is led by a 15-member board of directors. As a cooperative development, the tenants run the complex through this elected board. There is no pay for serving on the board. The corporation employs over 1000 people and has 32 administrative and operational departments to serve the development.
The complex has its own Public Safety Department with more than 100 sworn officers. In December 2007, the cable television company Cablevision gave RiverBay permission to use its fiber optic cables in order to install additional surveillance cameras throughout the complex to be viewed at the Public Safety Command Center. In 2008, trained supervisors were granted the power to write summonses for parking and noise violations[citation needed] and Segways were acquired – along with bikes – to help the officers patrol during the warmer months.
Co-op City was managed by Marion Scott Real Estate, Inc. from October 1999 to November 2014. Before then the property was run by in-house general managers. The development is currently managed by Douglas Elliman Property Management.
There are two weekly newspapers serving the community: Co-op City Times (the official RiverBay paper) and City News.
Qualifications for resident application
When Co-op City first opened, the original residents were required to pay $450 per room in equity and subsequently $25 per room in carrying charges.[10]
As of November 15, 2022, people who applied to live in Co-op City must meet the following requirements.[39]
Applicants must not have any criminal convictions for producing methamphetamine in the home
Applicants must not be legally required to be a lifetime registrant on the state sex offender registry
Applicants must have a FICOcredit score of at least 650 or, if no credit score, documentation of bills paid consistently
Applicants must be subject to a home visit during the application process
Applicants' children must attend school if age 5+
The following requirements depend on the number of rooms and number of residents.[39]
Number of rooms
Minimum residents
Maximum residents
Sales price
Monthly maintenance payment
Minimum annual income (age 18–61)
Minimum annual income (age 62+)
Maximum annual income (1–3 residents)
Maximum annual income (4+ residents)
3
1
2
$22,500
$807
$28,786
$26,370
$77,683
—
3.5
1
2
$26,250
$941
$33,472
$30,167
$89,957
—
4
1
2
$30,000
$1007
$38,187
$34,158
$103,654
—
4.5
2
4
$33,750
$1,212
$43,027
$38,724
$115,850
$126,117
5
2
4
$37,500
$1,344
$47,781
$43,002
$121,409
$137,475
6
4
6
$45,000
$1,616
$57,315
$52,663
$145,157
$166,471
6.5
4
6
$48,750
$1,739
$62,141
$55,925
$156,315
$179,766
Demographics
Co-op City in 2007, from the east
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Co-Op City was 43,752, an increase of 3,076 (7.6%) from the 40,676 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 857.55 acres (347.04 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 51.0 inhabitants per acre (32,600/sq mi; 12,600/km2).[2] The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 8.5% (3,723) White, 60.5% (26,452) African American, 0.2% (108) Native American, 1.2% (522) Asian, 0.0% (7) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (125) from other races, and 1.6% (681) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 27.7% (12,134) of the population.[40]
The entirety of Community District 10, which comprises City Island, Co-op City, Country Club, Pelham Bay, Schuylerville, Throgs Neck and Westchester Square, had 121,868 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 81.1 years.[41]: 2, 20 This is about the same as the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods.[42]: 53 (PDF p. 84) [43] Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 20% are between the ages of between 0–17, 26% between 25–44, and 27% between 45–64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 18% respectively.[41]: 2
As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 10 was $59,522.[44] In 2018, an estimated 14% of Community District 10 residents lived in poverty, compared to 25% in all of the Bronx and 20% in all of New York City. One in eleven residents (9%) were unemployed, compared to 13% in the Bronx and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 45% in Community District 10, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 58% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018[update], Community District 10 is considered high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying.[41]: 7
Because of its large senior citizen block—well over 8,300 residents above the age of sixty as of 2007[45]—it is considered the largest naturally occurring retirement community (NORC) in the nation and its Senior Services Program has extensive outreach to help its aging residents, most of whom moved in as workers and remained after retiring.[46]
Co-op City was home to a large Jewish community during its early years, as well as Italian Americans and Irish Americans; many of them had relocated from other areas of the Bronx, such as the Grand Concourse. With African Americans making up a large minority, the community became known for its ethnic diversity. As early tenants grew older and moved away, the newer residents reflected the current population of the Bronx, with African American and Hispanic residents comprising the majority of residents by 1987.[47] In the 1990s, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the neighborhood received an influx of former Eastern Bloc émigrés, especially from Russia and Albania.[48]
Policing and crime
Community District 10 is patrolled by the 45th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 2877 Barkley Avenue in Throggs Neck.[49] The 45th Precinct ranked 28th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010.[50] As of 2018[update], with a non-fatal assault rate of 53 per 100,000 people, Community District 10's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 243 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.[41]: 8
The 45th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 67% between 1990 and 2022. The precinct reported five murders, 13 rapes, 235 robberies, 265 felony assaults, 108 burglaries, 609 grand larcenies, and 323 grand larcenies auto in 2022.[51]
Public Safety Department
Co-op City Department of Public Safety at the 2017 Co-op City National Night Out
The Co-op City Department of Public Safety is a privately owned and operated police force that protects the residents, visitors and property of Co-op City only. The Co-op City Department of Public Safety currently employs more than 100 Public Safety officers and 10 civilian employees.[52][53][54]
As of 2018[update], preterm births are more common in Community District 10 than in other places citywide, though births to teenage mothers are less common. In Community District 10, there were 110 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 10.3 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide).[41]: 11 Community District 10 has a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 7%, lower than the citywide rate of 14%, though this was based on a small sample size.[41]: 14
The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Community District 10 is 0.0075 milligrams per cubic metre (7.5×10−9 oz/cu ft), the same as the city average.[41]: 9 Fourteen percent of Community District 10 residents are smokers, which is the same as the city average of 14% of residents being smokers.[41]: 13 In Community District 10, 24% of residents are obese, 13% are diabetic, and 37% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively.[41]: 16 In addition, 25% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.[41]: 12
Eighty-seven percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is the same as the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 77% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", about the same as the city's average of 78%.[41]: 13 For every supermarket in Community District 10, there are 7 bodegas.[41]: 10
The largest open space in Co-op City itself is the Greenway, which is located in the superblock connecting all of the buildings.[62] The majority of Co-op City was built atop Rattlesnake Creek, a small stream that emptied into the Hutchinson River to the east. A small nature preserve called the Givans Creek Woods is located at the northern portion of Co-op City, near the intersection of Baychester Avenue and Co-op City Boulevard.[63] Despite its name, which is derived from Scottish immigrant Robert Givan, it is located above Rattlesnake Creek.[64]
Co-op City Field, located on the waterfront of Hutchinson River at Co-op City Boulevard north of Bellamy Loop North, contains two baseball fields.[65] Directly to the south is a proposed 1.4-acre (0.57 ha) waterfront park, which was announced in 2017[66][67] and is still in the planning stages.[68]
Community District 10 generally has a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city as of 2018[update]. While 34% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 16% have less than a high school education and 50% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 26% of Bronx residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher.[41]: 6 The percentage of Community District 10 students excelling in math rose from 29% in 2000 to 47% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 33% to 35% during the same time period.[69]
Community District 10's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is slightly higher than the rest of New York City. In Community District 10, 21% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, a little more than the citywide average of 20%.[42]: 24 (PDF p. 55) [41]: 6 Additionally, 75% of high school students in Community District 10 graduate on time, the same as the citywide average of 75%.[41]: 6
The New York Public Library (NYPL)'s Baychester branch is located at 2049 Asch Loop North. The one-story branch building opened in 1973 and was renovated in 2003.[79]
Transportation
Co-op City is served by several MTA Regional Bus Operations routes. (Note that sections 1-2-3-4-5 corresponds to Dreiser, Carver, Bellamy, Asch, and Einstein Loops, respectively; buses pull into Asch and Dreiser Loops directly.)[80]
Eddie Carmel (1936–1972), entertainer, known as "The Jewish Giant", his claimed height of 9 feet made him an instant celebrity with traveling circuses. At the time of his death in 1972, he resided with his parents at 100 Elgar Place.[89]
^A Walk Through the BronxArchived August 24, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, WNET. Accessed June 18, 2007. "Co-op City is a middle income cooperative located in the northeastern corner of the Bronx and is the largest single residential development in the United States. Completed in 1971, it consists of 15,372 residential units, in thirty-five high-rise buildings and seven clusters of townhouses."
^Cheslow, Jerry. "If You're Thinking of Living In/Co-op City; A City, Bigger Than Many, Within a City"Archived September 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, November 20, 1994. Accessed September 28, 2017. "There are four building styles in Co-op City: the 26-story Triple Core, which has three entrances and 500 units; the 24-story Chevron, with 414 units; the 33-story, 384-unit Tower, and the three-story town-house buildings, with one-bedroom apartments on the ground floor and three-bedroom units on the other floors. In all, there are 35 high-rise buildings and seven town-house clusters, some of which have two, some three, buildings."
^Puza, D, and Breslin, R, "Saving a Sinking City" Civil Engineering—ASCE, Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1997, pp. 48–51
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxMcNamara, John (1984). History in asphalt : the origin of Bronx street and place names, Borough of the Bronx, New York City. Bronx, N.Y: Bronx County Historical Society. ISBN978-0-941980-16-6. OCLC10696584.
^"Hutchinson, Anne". National Women's Hall of Fame. Retrieved February 2, 2020.
^"I.S. 181 Pablo Casals". New York City Department of Education. December 19, 2018. Archived from the original on June 14, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2019.
^Peterson, Armand. "Stan Jefferson"Archived September 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Society for American Baseball Research. Accessed September 28, 2017. "Jefferson's baseball exploits attracted the attention of Earl Battey, the four-time All-Star catcher with the Minnesota Twins in the 1960s. Battey was also a resident of Co-op City and since 1968 had been running the Con Ed Answer Man community relations program for Consolidated Edison of New York."
^Stanley, Alessandra. "Out of Cell (and Sickbed), Biaggi Tries Anew"Archived September 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, September 12, 1992. Accessed July 16, 2017. "Mr. Engel, 45, a former teacher and State Assemblyman who grew up in Co-op City, where he still lives, is so subdued and unflamboyant that on Capitol Hill, where he serves on the Foreign Affairs Committee, he is sometimes mistaken for a Congressional aide."
^Vanderbilt, Tom. "City Lore; Stagecoach Wreck Injures 10 in Bronx"Archived January 28, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, September 1, 2002. Accessed September 28, 2017. "After a few years, the world's largest theme park, and New York's last, gave way to the world's largest housing development, Co-op City. Mr. Price, who joined the electrical workers' union, helped build it.... A year later, Mr. Price got an apartment in Co-op City: I wound up living in Freedomland, so to speak."
^ abSchwartzapfel, Beth. "It’s All About Love"Archived November 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Brown Alumni Magazine, July 22, 2009. Accessed July 12, 2022. "If you think scholarly research and hip-hop music don't go together, you don't know Tricia Rose '87 AM, '93 PhD.... In 1970, when Rose was nine, the family moved to Co-op City, a brand-new housing development in the northeast Bronx. Her brother Chris, five years her senior, remembers the move as 'a revelation.'"
^"Get To Know Ron Suno and his latest project Swag Like Mike"Archived January 2, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, Kazi, June 19, 2020. Accessed July 12, 2022. "Born Keron Foriest in Co-op City, a cooperative housing development in the northeast section of the Bronx, Suno emerged last fall on the New York drill scene, when he dropped his first hit, 'Pinnochio.'"
^Feuer, Alan. "For Brooklyn's District Attorney, Year One Is a Trial by Fire"Archived January 2, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, March 13, 2015. Accessed September 28, 2017. "He also noted that although he was raised in the Robert Wagner Houses, his mother, Clara, eventually moved the family to Co-op City in the Bronx, where they did not live in Section 5 — 'where the black folk live,' he said — but in Section 2, where he spent his teenage years as a bookworm and a paperboy for his neighbors, most of whom were Jewish."
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