Baharna

Not to be confused with Bahrainis (a term for all Bahraini Citizens) or Ajam of Bahrain.

Bahārna
البحارنة

Bahārna during Muharram
Regions with significant populations
Indigenous to Eastern Arabia (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatif, Al-Hasa), with notable presence in UAE, and Iran (Hormozgan province)
Languages
Arabic (Bahrani Arabic, Gulf Arabic)
Religion
Shia Islam

The Bahārna (Arabic: بُحارنة, lit. 'Buharnah', or Arabic: اِلبحارنه, lit. 'il baharneh'),^[1] are an ethnoreligious group of Shia Muslim Arabs indigenous to the historical region of Bahrain. They are generally regarded to be the original inhabitants of Eastern Arabia.^[2] They inhabited the area even before the arrival of the Banu Utbah in the 18th century which the Bahraini royal family descends from.^[3] Most Bahraini citizens are Baharna. Regions with most of the population are in Eastern Arabia (Bahrain, Qatif, al-Ahsa), with significant populations in Kuwait,^[1] United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Iraq, Khoramshahr, Hormozgan province of Iran.^[4][5][6]

Origin

The origin of the Baharna is debated;^[2] there are different theories regarding their origins. Several Western scholars believe the Baharna originate from Bahrain's ancient population and pre-Islamic population which consisted of partially-Christianized Arabs,^[7][8] Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists,^[7][9][10] Persian Zoroastrians, and a small amount of Jews.^[2] According to one historian, Arab settlements in Bahrain may have begun around 300 B.C. and control of the island was maintained by the Rabyah tribe, who converted to Islam in 630 A.D.^[11]

Local anecdotal evidence suggests that the Baharna's ancestry is diverse as some word variants spoken in the dialects of the native people of the villages of Bani Jamra and A'ali are only used in places as far as Yemen and Oman, indicating southern Arabian ancestry.^[12] Many Baharna families claim descent from members of the Banu Abdul Qays,^[13]: 5 who were mostly Nestorian Christians before the seventh century,^[14] as-well as the Anizah tribe which is a cousin tribe the Abd Al-Qays and are both part of the greater Rab’ia tribe. Many are also from the Bani Tamim tribe, such as the ruler of Bahrain during the early Islamic era, and Al-Azd.^[15] Some among them also claim ancestry to Bakr Bin Wail.^[13]: 5

The Bahrani Arabic dialect exhibits Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac features.^[16][17] The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Bahrain were Aramaic speakers and to some degree Middle Persian (Pahlavi) speakers, while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language.^[9] The Bahrani dialect might have borrowed the Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac features from Mesopotamian Arabic,^[18] with influences from an older Persian dialect.^[19]

According to Robert Bertram Serjeant, the Baharna may be the last of the "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and ancient Iranians (referred to by Arabs at the time as Majus) inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Arab conquest".^[7][20] They are said to be a mixture of Abd Al-Qais and Persians.^[21]

These claims are also supported by Archaeologgical finds as Archaeologists uncovered Parthian (247 BC – 224 AD) related artefacts were also found in Shahkhoura,^[22] a Christian church in Samaheej (mid-4th and mid-8th centuries).^[23]

Subgroups

See also: Khuzestani Arabs

Some Baharna and Ajams likely intermixed giving many Bahrainis claim to Iranian descent,^[24]: 53 Furthermore, a significant portion of the Baharna, along with many Emiratis, can trace part of their ancestry to Persian roots, often through a grandmother from two or three generations ago during the pre-oil era. This connection might position them as a distinct intermediate or mixed ethnic group.^[24]: 43

Some families seem to also show affinity of J2, including Al-Alawi,^[25][26] Al-Musawi,^[25][26] Al-Qassab,^[25][26] etc..^[26] Additionally, some subgroups of Baharnah have had recurring migrations between Bahrain and Khouzestan,^[6][27] most notably the Al-Karuni family,^[6] whom have had to re-migrate after the Persian harassment campaign against the Arabs of Mohammerah intensified,^[6] they speak a variant of Mesopotamian Arabic,^[28] some of them were politically active in the ranks of the Arab national movement that was working to restore Arab rule,^[6] some of them are shown by some samples to have an affinity to the J2 Haplogroup (belonging to the J-BY44557 branch).^[26] The other local Baharnah actually refer to them as "Muhammaris" (the Arabic variant of Khoramshahris), in reference to their migration.^{[citation needed]} Some also attribute their ancestry to a man name Karun/Qaroon.^{[citation needed]}

Etymology

The term Bahrani serves to distinguish the Bahrana from other Kuwaiti or Bahraini ethnic groups, such as the ethnic Bahraini-Iranians who fall under the term Ajam, as well as from the Sunni Arabs in Bahrain who are known as Al Arab ("Arabs"), such as Bani Utbah.^[29] In the United Arab Emirates, the Baharna make up 5% of Emiratis and are generally descended from Baharna coming around 100–200 years ago.^[30]

In Arabic, bahrayn is the dual form of bahr ("sea"), so al-Bahrayn means "the Two Seas". However, which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute.^[31] The term appears five times in the Qur'an, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as "Awal".

Today, Bahrain's "two seas" are instead generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island,^[32] the seas north and south of the island,^{[citation needed]} or the salt and fresh water present above and below the ground.^[33] In addition to wells, there are places in the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the salt water, noted by visitors since antiquity.^[34]

An alternate theory offered by al-Ahsa was that the two seas were the Persian Gulf and a peaceful lake on the mainland Near Al-Ahsa, known as Al-Asfar Lake; still another provided by Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari is that the more formal name Bahri (lit. "belonging to the sea") would have been misunderstood and so was opted against.^[33]

Language

The Baharnah speak the Bahrani Arabic dialect, which is a bit different from Bahraini Dialect and other Gulf Arabic dialects, interestingly, only Bahrani Arabic has a different pronoun for female "I" (MSA: أنا, romanized: ana), and the letter "th" (MSA: ث, romanized: th) in Bahrani becomes "f" (MSA: ف, romanized: f), whilst "the" (MSA: ذ, romanized: the) in Bahrani becomes "d" (MSA: د, romanized: d), and like other gulf dialects it includes the “ga” (گ) and “ch” (چ) sounds, below are some examples of that:

Bahrani Arabic	Bahraini Arabic	English Translation
هاده ويشو, hadah waysho	هاذي شنو, hathy sheno	what is this?
انه امبا فلاف سندويچات, anah omba falaf sandawichat	آنه ابي ثلاث سندويچات, aneh aby thalath sandawechat	I want three sandwiches
حگ ویه/ویش, hag wayh/waysh	حگ شنو, hag shino	For what?
اني تعبانه, ani ta'abanah (feminine) انه تعبان, anah ta'aban (masculine)	آنه تعبانه, āneh ta'abanah (feminine) آنه تعبان, āneh ta'abān (feminine)	I am tired

There are also subdialects of Bahrani like "ستراوي, satrawi" local to Sitra.

Culture

Proverbs

The Baharnah have various local proverbs,^[35] for example:

Bahrani Arabic	English Translation	Context
حتى المتوت نعمة الله, hata el-matot nemat allah[35]	Even the “matut” is a blessing from God	It highlights the idea of appreciating any blessing, especially in times of scarcity. The “matut” being the Anchovy fish used in the making of Maheyawa,[36] likely referencing the culture brought in by the Achums.
أصوم أصوم أفطر على بصلة, asoom asoom aftar ala basallah	I fast and fast, and then break my fast with an onion.	This is used to describe situations where someone puts in great effort or waits for a long time, only to end up with something trivial or disappointing. It's often said humorously or sarcastically.
يوم خلص الشي جت العجوز تمشي, youm khalas elshy jat al ajooz temshy[35]	When the thing finished, the granny (old woman) came walking	It's often used to comment on someone's tardiness or ineffectiveness.
مد رجولك على قد لحافك, med 'rjolok ala gad lehafuk[35]	Stretch your legs only as far as your blanket allows.	This proverb advises living within one's means and not overreaching. It's a metaphor for being practical and understanding one's limits.
البيت بيت أبونا والقوم حاربونا, el-bait bait abuna, wa el-qoom harabona[35]	The house is our father's house, and the tribe/people fought us	Used to express feelings of injustice or frustration when one is deprived of something that they feel rightfully belongs to them.

Cuisine

These are some of the most common dishes among the Baharnah:

• Machboos (Arabic: مچبوس, romanized: machboos), which is generally common around the Gulf region.
• Dried salted fish known as (Arabic: لِحلِه, romanized: Lehleh).^[37]

Clothes

• Thob-el-nashal (Arabic: ثوب النشل): The "Nashl" dress, mainly popular in Eastern Arabia,^[38] and especially in Bahrain,^[38][39][40] became renowned along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula as one of the traditional women's garments. Women wore it during major occasions and took pride in it in Gulf countries such as Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, the UAE, and the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.^[39] It is said that the Nashl garment derives its name from the word manshal, referring to the brightly colored fabric that covered the howdah—the carriage used to transport the bride from one place to another.^[39][40] The Nashl dress can be beautifully colored in vibrant hues such as red, blue, purple, and green, but black stands out with its unique allure among all other colors. The Nashl dress is typically embroidered with a variety of golden patterns that enhance its brilliance and beauty. It is handcrafted by women and artisans from the villages of the region using needles and thread, after purchasing the special fabrics from traditional markets.^[39] Now this is mostly worn as a traditional Bahraini dress, although Bahrani women wore it before the 1979 revolution on special occasions.

History

See also: History of Bahrain

Pre-Islam

In pre-Islamic times, the region of Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire.^[41] Its population included Christians, particularly tribal partially-Christianized Arabs,^[42][43][44] who were of diverse origins and spoke different old Arabian vernaculars,^[42] a Persian clergy (Magians) who used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally,^[41][42] a mobile Persian-speaking population,^{[42][45][46][note 1]} who were possibly predominately Zoroastrian,^[45] traders and administrators with strong ties to Persia, with whom which they maintained close contact with,^[42] a small amount of Jews,^[47][41] pagan Arabs,^[41] and a sedentary, non-tribal community of Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists,^[45][42][46] The major tribes of pre-Islamic Bahrain included Abd al-Qais, Tamīm, and Bakr ibn Wāil. The Persian governor was Al-Mundhir ibn Sāwa ibn Zayd Manāt ibn Tamīm,^[41] who acted on behalf on the Persians.^[41]

Islam emerges (628–631 CE)

Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE)

Umayyad dynasty (661–750)

After the rise of Islam in the 7th century, Bahrain became an important region under the early Islamic Caliphates. The region was originally part of the Rashidun Caliphate, and later the Umayyads and Abbasids. It was during this period that Islam began to spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Bahrain's population, including the Baharnah, were initially Sunni Muslims, as they were in line with the broader Islamic traditions of the time.^{[citation needed]}

Abbassid dynasty (768 CE to 865 CE)

Sahib az-Zanj (865 CE to 884 CE)

The Carmathians

10th to 13th century

After that, the Uyunids took control from the Qarmatians.^[48]

Bahrain was ruled by the Uyunid Emirate led by Banu Abd al-Qays tribe, from 1076 until it was overthrown by the Usfurids in 1238.^[48]

During the 12th to 13th century (1253–1392), Eastern Arabia was ruled by the Usfurids.^{[citation needed]}

Around this time, Bahrain became a hub for intellectuals for hundreds of years stretching from the early days of Islam in the 6th century to the 18th century. Philosophers of Bahrain were highly esteemed, such as the 13th century mystic, Sheikh Maitham Al Bahrani (died in 1299).^{[citation needed]}

13th–4th century

The Jarwanid dynasty ruled Eastern Arabian from 1310 to 1417.^{[citation needed]}

Simultaneously, the Jarwanid dynasty ruled locally until 1417, followed by the Jabrids rule between 1417 and 1424.^{[citation needed]}

15th century

The Safavid dynasty controlled Bahrain (between 1501~1736),^{[citation needed]} perhaps serving more of a protectorate as the locals were already on the Shia faith.^{[citation needed]}

In 1521 a force led by António Correia captured Bahrain, defeating the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil.^[49]

Later, local rules continued under Lahsa Eyalet (1560–1670),^{[citation needed]} and continued after the fall of the Safavid Empire with Bani Khalid Emirate (1669–)...^{[citation needed]}

16th century

The Safavid dynasty, which established Shia Islam as the state religion in Persia (modern-day Iran) in the 16th century, had a further influence on the Shia communities of Bahrain. Bahrain's close proximity to Persia, along with political and religious ties, made it easier for Shia Islam to further spread in the region. Persian influence, particularly in trade and religious exchanges, reinforced the practice of Twelver Shia Islam among the Baharnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Baharna, being predominantly Shia, generally aligned with the Safavids.^{[citation needed]} However, the region experienced ongoing political and sectarian tensions between the Safavids and their rivals, such as the Ottomans and various Sunni Arab tribes.^{[citation needed]} During the later part of Safavid rule, some Baharna families left Bahrain and sought refuge in Khuzestan, particularly when political instability and conflicts with neighbouring Sunni tribes increased. This phase of migration happened in the 17th century.

After the Safavid Empire fell in the early 18th century, Bahrain became vulnerable to invasions and shifts in power. The Omani invasion of Bahrain in 1717 destabilized the region, causing internal strife and pressure on the Shia Baharna population.^{[citation needed]} The uncertainty and insecurity in Bahrain led some Baharna to migrate to Khuzestan, where they found refuge among local Arab tribes, such as the Muhammarah. This migration was more sporadic but occurred during the early 18th century.^{[citation needed]}

17th century

Main article: Bani Utbah invasion of Bahrain

After the fall of the Safavid dynasty, Bahrain went through a period of anarchy, dismay, and self-rule in villages which made the country vulnerable to foreign invasions. Utub forces often attacked the island during this phase, which made the spiritual leader of Bahrain, Sheikh Mohammed ibn Abdullah Al Majed, use the Huwala to combat the Utubs' attacks. These attacks continued throughout the early 18th century until the Utubs launched a full-scale invasion of the island and established a government loyal to the Imam of Oman.^[50]

The Utubs were defeated and expelled by the Huwala forces loyal to Bahrain's spiritual leader who established a government headed by Sheikh Jabara Al-Holi (also known as Jubayr al-Holi). The Persian Afsharids led by former Safavid general Nader Shah invaded the island in 1737 and deposed Sheikh Jabara. Persian rule continued for 46 more years, with brief interruptions, until 1783, when the Al Khalifa family, who were Sunni Arabs from the Najd region (modern-day Saudi Arabia), took control of Bahrain after defeating Nader Shah.^[51]

The rule of Bani Khalid Emirate ended officially in 1796...^{[citation needed]}

This shift in power led to increased sectarian tensions, as the predominantly Sunni Al Khalifa rulers imposed their authority over the Shia Baharna population. Many Baharna felt marginalized and oppressed under the new rule.

18th century

Consequently, a significant number of Baharna families migrated to Iraq, and remained in Muhammarrah (Khuzestan) during the late 18th century, where they settled and integrated with local Arab tribes like Banu Kaab and Banu Kanaan.^{[52][additional citation(s) needed]}

19th century

Throughout the 19th century, Bahrain continued to experience internal conflicts, especially between the ruling Al Khalifa family and the Baharna population. Disputes over land, taxation, and sectarian discrimination pushed more Baharna to seek better conditions elsewhere.^{[citation needed]} During this period, additional Baharna families migrated to Khuzestan, where they joined the earlier waves of migrants. By this time, they had established strong ties with local Arab tribes, including the House of Ghannam and the Al Hilalat.^{[citation needed]}

Before the British intervention in 1923, the Baharnah had staged an uprising in 1922 to protest against the mistreatment and discrimination they faced. Al-Tajir (1987) recounts the events leading to the uprising, noting that a delegation of Baharnah, accompanied by prominent Sunni figures, sought an audience with the ruler. During this meeting, the Baharnah presented eight demands, which included ending their ill-treatment, abolishing additional taxes imposed exclusively on them, and putting a stop to forced labor ("sukhra").^[13]: 11

The delay in addressing these basic demands caused unrest, leading to broader instability as other groups in Bahrain clashed over various issues. In 1923, the British intervened, reorganizing the state’s affairs. These reforms created both winners and losers, with the Shia Baharnah considered relative beneficiaries, as they were no longer subjected to official discrimination.^[13]: 11

However, certain influential factions within the ruling elite perceived themselves as having lost privileges and rejected the 1923 reforms. The adversarial response to these changes is evident in the actions of Sir Charles Belgrave, the British Advisor to Bahrain’s Government from 1926 to 1957, who monitored these groups. Some members of the ruling family faced imprisonment or were barred from receiving funds from the Privy Purse.^{[13]: 11-12}

These groups and individuals, particularly those within the ruling family, harbored deep resentment toward the new administration and the policies introduced by Major Daly, the British Political Agent in 1923, and later upheld by Sir Charles Belgrave. With Britain’s influence waning in Bahrain by the early 1960s, especially after Belgrave's departure in 1957, some of those opposed to the 1923 changes began reasserting their influence, which grew significantly in recent years.^[13]: 12

The introduction of modern education and the discovery of oil in 1932 catalyzed nationalist movements in the 1930s and 1950s, with the Baharnah Shia actively participating alongside other key groups in Bahrain’s society.^[13]: 12

According to Al-Salman (forthcoming), a group of prominent Baharnah figures were at the forefront of Bahrain’s national movement in the 1930s, advocating for political and judicial reforms. Following the discovery and commercial production of oil in 1932, eight notable Baharnah leaders collaborated with other segments of society to push for meaningful reforms, laying the groundwork for modern democracy in Bahrain.^[13]: 12

In December 1934, these eight dignitaries—Mansoor Al-Arrayedh, Mohsin Al-Tajir, Abd Ali Al-Ulaiwait, Abdul Rasool bin Rajab, Haj Abdul Aziz bin Hujair Al-Bori, Ahmed bin Naser, Hussain Al-Madhoob, and Haj Ali bin Abbas Al-Aali—submitted a petition to Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa. They reminded him that the Baharnah’s support had been instrumental in stabilizing the country during his reign as crown prince and ruler. They called for key reforms, including the codification of legal provisions, proportional representation to ensure fair Baharnah representation in municipal and trade councils, and the establishment of schools for the Baharnah.^[13]: 12

Rush (1991) notes that the British Political Agent in Bahrain and the British Political Resident in Bushehr reported that these demands deeply unsettled the political establishment, particularly as the eight leaders had widespread support among the Baharnah population.^[13]: 12

The journey of return for some Baharnah to their homeland of Bahrain began in 1951, following the intensification of Persian harassment campaigns against the ethnic Arabs of Muhammarah. Some of them were politically active within the ranks of the Arab national movement, which aimed to restore Arab rule.^[6]

Over the centuries, the Baharnah people increasingly identified with the Shia community, in part due to the social and political dynamics of the region. Shia Islam was often seen as a unifying force against the Sunni rulers or dominant forces in the region, such as the various local ruling families or the Ottoman Empire. As Shia Islam became more integrated into the local identity of the Baharnah, it strengthened the community's sense of unity and distinctiveness within the broader Islamic world.

Notable people

See also: List of Bahranis

• Abdul Hadi Al-Khawaja, Bahraini political activist.
• Ramin Bahrani
• Ayat Al-Qarmizi
• Nabil Rajab
• Mahdi Abu Deeb
• Hassan Mushaima
• Zainab Al-Khawaja, Bahraini political activist and daughter of Abdul Hadi Al-Khawaja.
• Mohammed Haddad
• Mohammed Sayed Adnan
• Mohammed Al-Maskati
• Hussain Al-Sabaa
• Tariq Al-Farsani
• Jassim Al-Huwaidi
• Alaa Hubail, Bahraini footballer.

Gallery

• 
  Bahrani Mullahs in the parliament during 1973
• 
  Shia Bahranis stepping over Israel flag
• 
  2011 Uprising was a majorly Bahrani protest, but not exclusively
• 
  S. Yousif al-Mahafdha and Zainab al-Khawaja obsvering a protest in Jidhafs
• 
  Bahrani man offering his blood for donation during Ashura
• 
• 
  Mamdouh Abbas Al-Saleh

See also

• History of Bahrain

Language and culture

• Bahrani Arabic
• Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia

Geography

• Bahrain (historical region)

Bahrani People

• List of Bahranis
• Baharna in Kuwait

Notes

1. likely spoke Middle "Pahlavi" Persian

References

1. Zubaydah Ali M. Ashkanani (June 1988). Middle-aged women in Kuwait: Victims of change (Thesis). Durham University. p. 309. The Social Composition of Failakans
2. Al-Rumaihi, Mohammed Ghanim (1973). "Social and political change in Bahrain since the First World War" (PDF). Durham University. pp. 46–47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 Aug 2022.
3. Krieg, Andreas (2017-03-27). Socio-Political Order and Security in the Arab World: From Regime Security to Public Security. Springer. p. 62. ISBN 978-3-319-52243-2.
4. Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004107632.
5. الجزيري, الوسط-محمود. "البحرينيون في بندر لنجة: نزحوا بعاداتهم... فشيَّدوا المنامة في كل زقاق". صحيفة الوسط البحرينية (in Arabic). Retrieved 25 March 2024.
6. السبع, وسام (2012-12-11). "آل قاروني... ذكريات الغربة الطويلة". صحيفة الوسط البحرينية (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2024-08-31. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
7. Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI. ISBN 978-9004107632. Thus the elements in the pre-Islamic ethno-linguistic situation in eastern Arabia appear to have been a mixed tribal population of partially Christianised Arabs of diverse origins who probably spoke different old Arabian vernaculars; a mobile Persian-speaking population, possibly of traders and administrators, with strong links to Persia, which they maintained close contact; a small sedentary, non-tribal community of Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists; a Persian clergy, who we know for certain, used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally, probably alongside Persian as a spoken language.
8. Netton, Ian Richard (2006-03-09). A Popular Dictionary of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797737.
9. Smart, J. R. (2013). Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780700704118.
10. Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5. BRILL. p. 98. ISBN 978-9004097919.
11. "Bahrain – History Background". education.stateuniversity.com. Archived from the original on October 11, 2015.
12. Language Variation And Change In A Modernising Arab State: The Case Of Bahrain Google Books
13. "Shia and the state in Bahrain: Integeration and Tension" (PDF). Alternative Politics (Special Issue 1). 2010-11-24.
14. Peter Hellyer. Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southeastern Arabia, Journal of Social Affairs, volume 18, number 72, winter 2011
15. "من هم البحارنة؟ – ســنــوات الــجــريــش" (in Arabic). 2009-06-06. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
16. Holes, Clive (2002). Non-Arabic Semitic elements in the Arabic dialects of Eastern Arabia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 270–279. ISBN 9783447044912.
17. Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXIX–XXX. ISBN 978-9004107632.
18. Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary By Clive Holes. Page XXIX
19. Al-Tajer, Mahdi Abdulla (1982). Language & Linguistic Origins In Bahrain. Taylor & Francis. pp. 134, 135. ISBN 9780710300249.
20. Robert Bertram Serjeant (1968). "Fisher-folk and fish-traps in al-Bahrain". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 31 (3). SOAS: 488. JSTOR 614301.
21. Al-Tajer, Mahdi Abdulla (1982). Language & Linguistic Origins In Bahrain. Taylor & Francis. p. 141. ISBN 9780710300249. . . . that Bakr ibn Wa'il were excluded from such a prestige because they had as neighbours the Copts and the Persians, and so were Abd al-Qais (of Bahrain) and Azd (of Uman) who mixed with the Indians and the Persians (see al-Suyuti ,al-Muzhir, vol. I, pp. 211—212).
22. "Historical objects (artefacts) found in Shakhoura". British Museum. Archived from the original on 2024-09-29: Objects related to the Parthian period have been found in Shahkhoura, in addition to the Greek (Tylos) period.
23. Maddern, Kerra; Exeter, University of. "Archaeologists discover one of the earliest Christian buildings in Bahrain". phys.org. Archived from the original on 2024-07-14. Retrieved 2024-07-26.
24. McCoy, Eric (2008). Iranians in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates: Migration, Minorities, and Identities in the Persian Gulf Arab States (PDF). The University of Arizona. ISBN 9780549935070. OCLC 659750775. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-08-05.
25. "اكتشف عائلتك ( عوائل مملكة البحرين )". ملتقى الشعراء (in Arabic). 2008-08-17. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
26. "FamilyTreeDNA - Bahrain". www.familytreedna.com. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
27. DC, Arab Center Washington. "From Neighbors to Foreigners: Iranians in Bahrain in the Early 20th Century". Arab Center Washington DC. Archived from the original on 2024-09-14. Retrieved 2024-09-14.
28. "إكتشف عائلتك"عوائل البحرين"". al7anoon.mam9.com (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 2024-12-06. Retrieved 2024-12-06. القاروني ( من العوائل العريقة في البحرين ويسكنون فريق بني و بيتهم القديم بالقرب من مسجد السدر ، وينتشر القارونيون في مختلف قرى البحرين بل ومنهم من هاجر إلى خارج البحرين أيام الهجمات على البحرين فمنهم من يعيش بالعراق بالمحمرة والبصرة والنجف وكربلاء وبغداد ومنهم من هاجر إلى إيران كأبناء المحدث والمفسر الكبير السيد هاشم القاروني والملقب بالتوبلاني والذي له مزار في قرية توبلي يسمونه مسجد السيد هاشم التوبلاني، وقد عاد جزء منهم إلى موطنه الأصلي البحرين بعد غياب طويل ولكن بلهجة عراقية أوبلكنة إيرانية [Al-Qaruni (one of the most prominent families in Bahrain, they live in the Bani Fariq and their old house is near Al-Sidr Mosque. The Qarounis are spread throughout the villages of Bahrain, and some of them even migrated outside of Bahrain during the attacks on Bahrain. Some of them live in Iraq in Al-Muhammarah, Basra, Najaf, Karbala and Baghdad, and some of them migrated to Iran, such as the sons of the great hadith scholar and interpreter, Sayyid Hashim Al-Qaruni, nicknamed Al-Tublani, who has a shrine in the village of Tubli called the Sayyid Hashim Al-Tublani Mosque. Some of them returned to their original homeland, Bahrain, after a long absence, but with an Iraqi dialect or an Iranian accent.]
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31. Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. I. "Bahrayn", p. 941. E.J. Brill (Leiden), 1960.
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42. Holes, Clive (2001). Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI. ISBN 978-9004107632. Thus the elements in the pre-Islamic ethno-linguistic situation in eastern Arabia appear to have been a mixed tribal population of partially Christianised Arabs of diverse origins who probably spoke different old Arabian vernaculars; a mobile Persian-speaking population, possibly of traders and administrators, with strong links to Persia, which they maintained close contact; a small sedentary, non-tribal community of Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists; a Persian clergy, who we know for certain, used Syriac as a language of liturgy and writing more generally, probably alongside Persian as a spoken language. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
43. Netton, Ian Richard (2006-03-09). A Popular Dictionary of Islam. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797737.
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46. Smart, J. R. (2013). Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780700704118. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
47. Al-Rumaihi, Mohammed Ghanim (1973). "Social and political change in Bahrain since the First World War" (PDF). Durham University. pp. 46–47. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2022.
48. Sharʻān, Nāyif ibn ʻAbd Allāh (2002). Nuqūd al-dawlah al-ʻUyūnīyah fī bilād al-Baḥrayn. al-Riyāḍ: Markaz al-Malik Fayṣal lil-Buḥūth wa-al-Dirāsāt al-Islāmīyah. ISBN 978-9960-726-91-5.
49. Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p. 37
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External links

• The 1922 Bahrani uprising in Bahrain
• Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800, Juan Cole, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, (May 1987), pp. 177–203
• Eastern Coast of Arabian Peninsula for DNA test